Death of Henry the Fowler, 2nd July 936

2^nd July 936 AD saw the death of Henry the Fowler, of a stroke. He was Duke of Saxony from 912 AD and King of East Frankia from 919 AD and also acquired Lotharingia in 925 AD as a vassal state. He was succeeded by his son Otto, who later became known as Otto the Great. He is of interest to us because he was also the father-in-law of Eadgyth, Otto’s wife, the daughter of Edward the Elder and sister of Athelstan of England.

He was a descendant of Charlemagne; as the first non-Frankish king of East Frankia he is generally considered to be the founder of the medieval German state. Through his son Otto the Great he established the Ottonian Dynasty. Legend has it that he became known as “the Fowler” because he was an avid hunter and was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king.

He was successful in war against a number of threats to his power, but did not centralise control. Rather he ruled through federated duchies. Interestingly he, like Alfred, Edward and Athelflad built an extensive series of fortifications across Germany in response to the Magyar incursions, routing them in 933 AD at the Battle of Riade and ending their attacks for the next 21 years. He also defeated the Slavs at the Battle of Lenzen in 929 AD, invading Bohemia and later Schleswig. The kings of West Frankia and Upper Burgundy also acknowledged him as their over-king.

He was also strategic in his alliances with other European royal houses, and was keen to seal a relationship with England. He requested a marriage for his son Otto to an English princess, one of Athelstan’s many sisters. Otto chose Eadgyth and they were married in 930 AD.

Death of Robert, Duke of Normandy, 2^nd or 3^rd July 1035

William, son of Robert the Magnificent, Duke of Normandy, inherited his father’s title at the age of around eight when Robert died. Robert had made his young and illegitimate son his heir before setting out on pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He died on his return journey at Nicaea around 2^nd or 3^rd July 1035. William was his son by his mistress, Herleva of Falaise.

Due to his tender age and illegitimacy William had quite a struggle retaining his title, regardless of the oaths of fealty sworn by the leading men of Normandy to his father that they would recognise him as Duke if Robert died. These difficulties no doubt forged his character in later years.

William did have support from some key men however, including Henry I, King of France, and the Archbishop of Rouen, Robert, his uncle. Robert was effectively regent until his own death in 1037 when William was about 10. It was at this time Norman support for the exiled English royal family, driven out by Cnut, was critical to the future Edward the Confessor. Edward’s mother was Emma of Normandy, the great-aunt of William, and Edward was the first cousin of William’s father Robert.

Following the Archbishop’s death there was a period of unrest in Normandy with a series of men taking control of the young Duke. However, ducal authority was basically acknowledged and the Church continued to support William, as did Henry of France. However, in late 1046 there was a serious rebellion and William had to escape to Henry’s court for safety. Early in 1047 Henry and William brought an army to Normandy and with Henry’s support William was victorious at the Battle of Val-ès-Dunes near Caen. He then introduced the Truce of God to try and limit the fighting in the duchy, but until 1054 there was almost continuous warfare, with a lower level of unrest persisting until 1060.

It was during this time that William married Matilda of Flanders. There was some difficulty surrounding this marriage due to the Church claiming they were too closely related (third cousins once removed). Bishop Lanfranc helped to arrange the Pope’s blessing. They finally married around 1051, probably ahead of actual papal sanction which seems only to have been granted around 1059. Helpfully for William in later years, Matilda also claimed descent from the House of Wessex through her father Baldwin V of Flanders, the three times great grandson of Alfthryth of Wessex, who was the youngest daughter of Alfred the Great.

Although there are claims that Edward promised the throne of England to William in 1051 and that William visited England to secure arrangements, this is believed to be unlikely. At that time William was embroiled in Anjou. Although this was the period of the exile of the Godwins from England, there is no English source for the visit by William and the Norman sources are muddled in their chronology. Neither is there evidence from English sources for Harold’s alleged trip to Normandy in 1064, and it may be no more than Norman propaganda.

Throughout the 1050s and early 1060s William continued to work on securing his Duchy and attempting to expand his borders. When the Count of Maine died in 1062, William claimed control through his son, who was betrothed to the Count’s sister. He invaded when there was resistance and secured control by 1064. He then seems to have invaded Brittany and destabilised it; and in 1066 he had support from a number of Breton nobles for his invasion of England.

Discovery of the Staffordshire Hoard, 5^th July 2009

The Staffordshire Hoard was discovered in a field on 5th July 2009 by a metal detectorist called Terry Herbert. The Hoard is the largest collection of Anglo-Saxon gold and silver metalwork ever found, anywhere in the world. It consists of around 4,000 items which combine to a total of over 5kg of gold, nearly 1 ½ kg of silver and around 3,500 cloisonné garnets. Remarkably it was buried just below the surface, due to soil erosion over the years, and had been disturbed by ploughing the previous year, scattering it. It was probably buried around 650-675 AD, and lay close to the Roman Road of Watling Street which was still an important route at the time. Excavation at the site confirmed there were no buildings or other evidence for Anglo-Saxon habitation on the site, confirming it had been buried in a relatively remote location (although presumably where it could be found again near the road).

In November 2012 a further 81 pieces of gold and silver items were discovered in the same field when it was ploughed again.

The Hoard comprises primarily war gear which is particularly important as most survivals from the period are church items or female burial pieces, which provides a limited view. This find enables researchers to explore the warrior culture more fully than in the past.

The pieces are removed from weapons rather than representing the main body of the weapon itself (such as the sword blade). There are almost 100 pommel caps for instance and probably helmet fittings. However, swords are the major contributing type of object and it has been suggested that the fittings were taken to depersonalise the original blade. Each object is unique in pattern and probably identified the owner in some way. However, whether these are from a single battle or collected over many years is not clear.

The location of the find is in the Kingdom of Mercia and dates to the seventh century when the kings there were expanding aggressively. The items might represent any of their campaigns against the other kingdoms. One theory is that the burial is a ritual deposit, but it may have been battle loot or a ransom, or just hidden from attackers, or even collected for recycling into new fittings; debate remains keen.

While the quantities are enormous, the quality is also extraordinary indicating that the objects were created for elite warriors. The hoard contains only one written text, a biblical inscription written in Latin and misspelled in two places. It reads: “Rise up, O Lord, and may thy enemies be dispersed and those who hate thee be driven from thy face.” (Numbers 10:35). More generally, there are three kinds of decoration: cut and mounted garnets, gold filigree, and animal patterns.

Most of the garnet decoration uses the cloisonné technique, setting thin slices of garnet cut to fit in the pattern made by gold wire Stamped gold foil placed beneath the garnet allowed light to reflect back, enhancing the brilliance and making its colour a darker red. Some pieces are decorated with stylised animals interlaced in the Anglo-Saxon Style II. There are two sources of garnet in the hoard. The very small garnets came from the Czech Republic and the larger cut garnets are from the Indian subcontinent.

Scientific analysis has also revealed that the goldsmiths managed to remove some of the silver from the surface of the items so that the object appears even more golden. The technique is not understood fully but it shows a very sophisticated understanding of materials and technology.

More recently research has identified that approximately a third of the fragments in the Staffordshire Hoard come from a very high-status helmet, and two reconstructions were created over an 18 month period by a team of specialists. The fragments in the Hoard are too fragile to be put back together but the reconstructions have made use of digital technology to capture form and decoration as closely as possible based on the analysis of the fragments.

A silver gilt cheek piece and an animal headed terminal were identified in the initial finds, with another terminal being identified later. The second field survey in 2012 then picked up a second cheek piece. The terminals fitted onto a crest, and were decorated with Style II interlaced animals, including serpents and quadrupeds. Eventually some of the sheet metal fragments, some weighing less than 1g, were reconstructed and a silver band which had encircled the base of the helmet emerged showing kneeling or running spearmen.

None of the iron or leather of the original helmet survives so reconstruction was difficult. However, the crest, cheek pieces and decorative sheets all indicated a crested helmet, similar to the ones found at Sutton Hoo, Wollaston and Coppergate (York). Although so little of the helmet survives, it is considered the finest example of the type so far, with its golden ornamentation reminiscent of late Roman (4th century) helmets. It is also unique in that the grooved channel on the crest indicates it had an actual hair crest on it. The reconstructions have crests of pale horsehair dyed with madder to a vibrant red to match the dominant red and gold colours in the hoard. It has been suggested that the helmet should effectively be considered to represent a crown.

The reconstruction had to work out the substructure of the helmet, and this was done by analogy for other helmets and fittings matched to holes on the fragments where possible. The final product weighed in at around 3kg which is heavy but manageable. It has proved to be well balanced, and the original probably used iron instead of steel for the frame would have reduced the weight by 1 kg, and is the more likely material used in the original.

The two reconstructions are to be displayed at the Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery and the Potteries Museum & Art Gallery at Stoke-on-Trent.

Death of Seaxburh, 6^th July

Feast Day of Haeddi, 7^th July

7th July is the Feast Day of Haeddi, who died in 705 AD.

Bede tells us that he was one of the five Bishops taught at Hild’s monastery of Whitby, therefore that he was a man of singular merit and sanctity.

He was consecrated as Bishop of the West Saxons in 676 AD by Archbishop Theodore in London. Bede later adds, a little condescendingly perhaps, that in 705 AD:

“Hedda, bishop of the West Saxons, departed to the heavenly kingdom; for he was a good and just man, and exercised his episcopal duties rather by his innate love of virtue, than by what he had gained from learning.”

Haeddi was influential; he was the man who persuaded the West Saxon king, Cadwalla, to abdicate and go on pilgrimage to Rome, which was unheard of for a king at that time. Cadwalla had been involved in a sustained military campaign for control of Wessex, including the brutal conquest of the people of the Isle of Wight, wiping out their ruling family and converting them at sword-point to Christianity. He also gained control of Sussex, Surrey and Kent. The fighting on the Isle of Wight had left Cadwalla wounded and this was when Haeddi persuaded him to go on his pilgrimage to Rome.

Haeddi then continued to work with Cadwalla’s successor, Ine, and the proliferation of minsters in Wessex during their two reigns may be attributed to his influence as well as the increased access to formerly pagan territory afforded by Cadwalla’s victories. Many of Cadwalla’s land grants were however made to the Northumbrian Bishop Wilfrid who had at one time tried to convert the South Saxons.

Cadwalla was succeeded in 688 AD by Ine, whose law code, partially copied by Alfred into his own law code, was probably drawn up before 694 AD, and its prologue lists the chief advisers to the king, including bishops Haeddi and Eorcenwald (Bishop of London, died 693 AD) and Ine’s father, Cenred, who may have been continuing to rule alongside Ine, or as his overlord.

Haeddi was also the Bishop who moved the seat of his bishopric, along with the remains of St Birinus, from Dorchester-on-Thames to Winchester.

After his death the large West Saxon see was divided into two, and Daniel became the Bishop of Winchester, and Aldhelm the Bishop of Sherborne.

William of Malmesbury describes Haeddi’s passing and its consequences as follows:

“His death was welcome to those in heaven, for his previous life had been so holy that he went to swell their number, but a matter of grief to mortals, for they could scarcely hope to find another like willing to rule so widespread a diocese. For what is nowadays governed by four bishops one man then controlled, repressing the rebel by his authority and soothing the suppliant by his straightforwardness. It was therefore decided at a synod to divide the swollen diocese into two sees, one at Sherborne, the other at Winchester. The division was unfair and unequal, for it resulted in one man ruling a mere two counties, while the other had the whole vast expanse of Wessex.”

Death of Florence of Worcester, 7^th July 1118

Although slightly after our period, it seems fitting to remember today Florence of Worcester, and his fellow scribe, John.

Florence died on 7th July 1118, and for a long time was thought to be the author of the Chronicle of Chronicles (or Chronicon), which included among its sources a lost version of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles. The basis for this was the following passage from the Chronicon itself:

“Dom Florence of Worcester, a monk of that monastery, died on the Nones of July. His acute observation, and laborious and diligent studies, have rendered this Chronicle of Chronicles pre-eminent above all others.

His spirit to the skies, to earth his body given,
For ever may he reign with God’s blest saints in heaven!”

It was then thought that the work was completed by John of Worcester.

However, it is now understood that the Chronicon was written entirely by John of Worcester based on a range of pieces of evidence and analysis of the authorial writing style.

You can read more about the Worcester scribes here:

A Scribe’s Life (2): John of Worcester

Death of King Edgar, 8^th July 975

King Edgar the Peaceable died on 8th July 975 AD aged a mere 33 years. Perhaps he is best remembered as the king who was rowed up the river by eight sub-Kings on 11th May 973 AD. His coronation ceremony is the one which forms the template for that used by UK monarchs today, including the current King. Sadly the boating element appears to have been removed.

Edgar was the second son of Edmund and his wife Alfgifu, and grandson of Edward the Elder; his older brother Edwy was king before him but died in 959 AD when Edgar was sixteen. Edgar became king of the English in his place, albeit a youthful one. He had previously been King of the Mercians and Northumbrians since 957 AD as we are told by John of Worcester:

“[957 AD] The people of Mercia and Northumbria threw off their allegiance to Edwy king of England, disgusted at the folly of his government, and elected his cousin [sic: actually it was his brother], the atheling Edgar, king. So the kingdom was divided between the two kings in such manner that the river Thames formed the boundary of their respective dominions.”

At this point Edgar recalled Dunstan from his exile, imposed by Edwy much to the anger of many people. Dunstan and Edgar had a long collaboration in support in Church Reform, building a group of reformers including Oswald, Bishop of Worcester, and Athelwald of Abingdon. This involved imposing the Benedictine rule on a number of houses, sometimes quite violently.

Edgar is also recorded as establishing a strong navy, described here by Symeon of Durham:

“In his lifetime he had collected three thousand six hundred stout ships; of which, after Easter, he stationed one thousand two hundred on the east, one thousand two hundred on the west, and one thousand two hundred on the north coast of the island; and was wont to sail with the eastern fleet to the western, and leaving it, with the western to the northern, and leaving it, with the northern again to the eastern—thus every year circumnavigating the whole island. He acted thus boldly for defence against foreigners, and for practice in warlike arts to himself and his people.”

At the time of Edgar’s accession England had recently become a single realm, but as the events of 957-959 AD show, it was still fragile as a unified state. By the end of Edgar’s reign he had consolidated it to the extent that it was much less likely to fracture again; at least not until Cnut and Edmund Ironside agreed a split in 1016, which ended with Edmund’s death later that November.

Edgar had key relationships with three women: Athelflaed “Eneda”, Wulfthryth and Alfthryth.

Firstly, he was married to Athelflaed Eneda before he succeeded Edwy, and little is known about her, although it appears she was the daughter of Ordmar, ealdorman of the East Anglia. She was followed by Wulfthryth, and it is unclear whether they were ever married. One of these two women was the mother of Edward, later known as “the Martyr” because of his assassination at Corfe Castle, enabling Athelred his half-brother to take the throne while still a minor.

An 11th century Life of Dunstan claims that Edward’s mother was a nun at Wilton Abbey who was seduced by Edgar although other chronicles refer to Athelflaed as his mother.

By 964 AD, Edgar was married again, this time to Alfthryth, daughter of Ordgar, ealdorman of Devon. She was the mother of Edmund (died 971 AD, pre-deceasing his father) and Athelred Unrede. She was married originally to Athelwald, who was by then the ealdorman of East Anglia, and who may have been the son of Athelstan Half-King, according to Byrhtferth’s Life of Oswald.

This marriage was the subject of controversy. According to William of Malmesbury, Edgar heard of how beautiful Alfthryth was and sent Athelwald to see and if it was true, to offer her marriage to Edgar. However, Athelwald was smitten himself, married her himself and told the king that she was not as beautiful as the reports claimed. Edgar heard about the deception and decided to see for himself. Athelwald told his wife to hide her beauty but she did not, and Edgar also fell in love and killed Athelwald while they were out hunting, then married his widow. Whatever the truth of it, Athelwald was apparently dead by 962 AD as he no longer witnesses charters, and by 966 AD Alfthryth is recorded as the king’s lawful wife.

Sons by different mothers indicated a coming succession crisis, and there was ongoing intrigue and political manoeuvring in the following years. However, this did not stop Edgar from having a succession of mistresses as well as his wives, including a nun, potentially the same Wulfthryth, whom he abducted from Wilton Abbey for which act he had to do penance for 7 years.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle summed up his reign in uncharacteristic poetry:

“Here Edgar died, ruler of the Angles, West Saxons’ joy, and Mercians’ protector.

Known was, throughout many nations, this offspring of Eadmund, o’er the gannet’s bath.

Kings him widely honoured far, bowed to the king, as was his due by kind,

No fleet was so daring, nor army so strong, that ‘mid the English nation took from him aught, the while that the noble king ruled his throne.”

Edgar’s title of “the Peaceable” is not for his lack of martial prowess, but rather because of it. During his reign there were no recorded Viking attacks, although they resumed in 980 AD, a few years after his death. In 968 AD Edgar sent an army to ravage Thanet, because of attacks on York (Danelaw) merchants. Arguably his title “Pacificus” might be better translated as “Peacemaker” or “Peacekeeper”.

The main criticism of him in the Chronicle is for bringing heathen manners and harmful foreigners into England, possibly because his law code “IV Edgar” recognised the authority of a separate legal system in the Danelaw.

Feast Day of St Averild of Everingham, 9^th July

St Everild (Averil) of Everingham is a little known saint of the 7^th century of Wessex origin who made her life in Yorkshire. Her Feast Day is celebrated on 9^th July and she has churches dedicated to her at Everingham and Nether Poppleton, near York.

Little information is known, and it all derives from the York Breviary which included her Feast Day on its calendar. She seems to have been a nun associated with Wilfrid, and references to her are found in the York calendar, as well as the Northumbrian one and in two martyrologies.

She came originally from a noble Wessex family and decided to come north with two companions, Bega and Wulfreda, to become a nun. They settled on land given to them by Wilfrid, at a place called Bishop’s Farm, and their nunnery grew until there were 80 nuns. The location for this is usually given as Everingham, but it is also argued that it may have been at Nether Poppleton, the site of the other church dedicated to the saint. This is based on the entry in the Domesday Book which describes the land as being that of St Everild although no church is mentioned.

Everild died peacefully around 700 AD when her mission of establishing a nunnery was accomplished. She was remembered faithfully at York for many centuries, but now the details of her life are gone.

Lady Godgifu’s (Godiva’s) ride, 10^th July 1040

It is alleged by Roger of Wendover in the 13th century that on 10th July 1040 Godgifu (Godiva) rode naked through the streets of Coventry to persuade her husband, Earl Leofric, to stop taxing the poor so heavily. The accuracy of this claim is unreliable. However, Tennyson wrote a poem about her celebrating it:

“Then she rode forth, clothed on with chastity:
The deep air listen’d round her as she rode,
And all the low wind hardy breathed for fear.”

Little is known about her background or early life. It is possible she was a widow when she married Leofric, Earl of Mercia; she and Leofric seem to have had at least one son, Alfgar. He had been, in the words of the Chronicle, unjustly overlooked in favour of Tostig Godwinson for the earldom of Northumbria after the death of Siward in 1055, and had been outlawed. However, despite his support for Gruffydd ap Llewellyn he had been restored to the earldom of East Anglia later that year and when his father died in 1057 he succeeded to Leofric’s earldom of Mercia. His sons include Morcar and Edwin, who were important in the later story of England. Alfgar also had a sister, Ealdgyth, who married Gruffydd.

Godgifu appears on a charter with her husband in the 1050s endowing a monastery in Coventry, built to replace the one destroyed by Vikings in 1016.

She gave Coventry a number of works by the famous goldsmith Mannig and as well as a silver necklace valued at 100 marks. She also gave a necklace to Evesham, to be hung around the figure of the Virgin and a gold-fringed chasuble to St Paul’s Cathedral in London.

The manor of Woolhope in Herefordshire, along with four others, was given to the cathedral at Hereford before 1066 by Wulviva and Godiva, and this is generally held to be the same Godgifu and her sister. It is also possible that Thorold, who appears in the Domesday Book as sheriff of Lincolnshire, was her brother.

Following Leofric’s death in 1057 Godgifu seems to have survived until some time between 1066-1086. She is mentioned in Domesday as one of the few Anglo-Saxons and the only woman to remain a major landholder following the Norman invasion in 1066. However, by 1086 when the Domesday was published Godiva had died and her former lands are listed, but now held by others. It is believed she was buried at Coventry with Leofric, although Evesham Abbey also claimed that she was buried there.

Despite the early lack of record, later chroniclers become much more effusive about Godgifu. John of Worcester, writing in the 12th century, recorded that in 1057 Leofric died and:

“was buried with great pomp at Coventry; which monastery, among the other good deeds of his life, he and his wife, the noble countess Godiva, a worshipper of God, and devoted friend of St. Mary, Ever-a-Virgin, had founded, and amply endowing it with lands on their own patrimony, had so enriched with all kinds of ornament, that no monastery could be found in England possessed of such abundance of gold, silver, jewels, and precious stones as it contained at that time. They also enriched, with valuable ornaments, the monasteries of Leominster and Wenlock, and those at Chester dedicated to St. John the Baptist and St. Werburgh, the virgin, and the church which Eadnoth, bishop of Lincoln, had built on a remarkable spot, called in English St. Mary’s Stow, which means in Latin St. Mary’s Place. They also gave lands to the monastery at Worcester, and added to the buildings, ornaments, and endowments of Evesham abbey.”

At this point in the evolution of the Godiva legend, the Earl and his wife are both viewed positively as benefactors of the Church. John’s text is repeated by Simeon of Durham in his Historia Regum Anglorum et Dacorum.

Then in Roger of Wendover’s Flores Historiarum, written at St Albans in the early 13th century, the story suddenly takes on a new life and the entry for 2017 reporting Leofric’s death now includes the following legend:

“in the same year died Leofric earl of Chester, a man of praise-worthy life; he was buried in the monastery which he had founded at Coventry. Having founded this monastery by the advice of his wife the noble countess Godiva, he, at the prayer of a religious woman, placed monks therein, and so enriched them with lands, woods, and ornaments, that there was not found in all England a monastery with such an abundance of gold and silver, gems and costly garments. The countess Godiva, who was a great lover of God’s mother, longing to free the town of Coventry from the oppression of a heavy toll, often with urgent prayers besought her husband, that from regard to Jesus Christ and his mother, he would free the town from that service, and from all other heavy burdens ; and when the earl sharply rebuked her for foolishly asking what was so much to his damage, and always forbade her ever more to speak to him on the subject ; and while she, on the other hand, with a woman’s pertinacity, never ceased to exasperate her husband on that matter, he at last made her this answer, ” Mount your horse, and ride naked, before all the people, through the market of the town, from one end to the other, and on your return you shall have your request.” On which Godiva replied, “But will you give me permission, if I am willing to do it?” “I will,” said he. Whereupon the countess, beloved of God, loosed her hair and let down her tresses, which covered the whole of her body like a veil, and then mounting her horse and attended by two knights, she rode through the market-place, without being seen, except her fair legs ; and having completed the journey, she returned with gladness to her astonished husband, and obtained of him what she had asked ; for earl Leofric freed the town of Coventry and its inhabitants from the aforesaid service, and confirmed what he had done by a charter. The said earl also, at the instigation of his countess, munificently enriched with lands, buildings, and various ornaments the churches of Worcester, St. Mary of Stone, and St. Wereburg, with the monasteries of Evesham, Wenloc, and Lenton.”

Later writers added some more embellishments, such as Peeping Tom (first recorded by name in 1773, but in relation to an effigy based on an earlier tradition), and dropped the two knights who accompanied her, but the essence of the story remained albeit with Leofric receiving increasingly negative coverage. The reason for the legend is unclear and may be a founding story for the city of Coventry. It also may originally have been derived from a pagan tradition of a fertility goddess celebrating spring. The naked woman with long hair, riding in a springtime procession, is the one constant factor in all variations of those legends. The Peeping Tom story may in this case be a part of the original myth, recalling similar examples of those who intruded on the forbidden rites of other fertility goddesses. Godgifu’s horse would therefore be an important element of the story, probably replacing the more traditional male victim of the rites. So in the end the story may be another example of pagan tradition being subverted by or for Christian audiences.

Feast Day of St Benedict of Nursia, 11^th July

11th July is the Feast Day of St Benedict of Nursia. Although not an Anglo-Saxon, he founded the Rule which was adopted (with greater or lesser success) by many of the Anglo-Saxon Monasteries. 

Benedict was born around 480 AD in Nursia, Perugia, Italy, about 100 miles north-east of Rome. This was only four years after the barbarian Flavius Odoacer had deposed the last formally recognised Western Roman Emperor, Romulus Augustulus, to become King of Italy; this event is usually seen as the end of the Roman Empire in the West.

What we know about Benedict was mainly written by Pope Gregory in his Dialogues (written 593-4 AD) and based on testimony from monks who had known Benedict personally. After school in Nursia Benedict went to Rome to study literature and law. The lifestyle did not suit him, and he moved to Affile with a group of priests and his old nurse. In Affile he performed his first miracle, restoring a broken earthenware bowl which had been broken and this gained him some notoriety. To avoid the attentions of the world he withdrew to a cave and became a hermit for three years, leading a solitary life with little contact with other people beyond a monk form a nearby monastery and some shepherds. The shepherds were influenced by his teachings and began to follow him.

Eventually he founded twelve monasteries, each with twelve monks, and then a thirteenth for novices and students. As his fame spread nobles began to send their sons to learn from him.

Benedict continued to perform miracles, but he was not universally admired and one particular priest, Florentius, caused him so many difficulties that he decided to go to Cassino, where between 525-529 AD he founded the Abbey of Montecassino on the Roman acropolis above the town.

Two more interesting facts about Benedict:  one of Benedict’s attributes (symbols) is a raven, and in 1964 Pope Paul VI declared Benedict the patron saint of all Europe.

The Benedictine Rule was written in 516 AD and represented a moderate path. It comprises 73 chapters covering the efficient administration of the monastery and the proper way to live a Christian life, including the Work of God (Opus Dei). The Golden Rule was “Pray and Work” (Ora et Labora) requiring the monks to spend the day in prayer, study and manual work, which included sacred reading, or works of charity.

“Idleness is the enemy of the soul, therefore let the brethren devote certain hours to work with their hands.”

The Benedictine Rule was introduced to England by the Augustinian Mission at the end of the 6^th century, and spread rapidly following the decision in 664 AD to adhere to Roman teachings rather than the Celtic form. It was strongly influenced by Bishop Wilfrid. Benedictine monasteries were designed to accommodate the rhythm of the Rule, allowing space for communal prayer, dining and dormitories. Celtic monasteries had tended to emphasise individual prayer and fasting, with individual cells.

In the 7^th and 8^th centuries many monasteries were Benedictine, although not all, but the decline of learning identified by Alfred the Great in the 9^th century meant that further reform became required.

In the 10^th century Winchester became the focus of the reform movement during the reign of Edgar when he made Athelwold its Bishop.  Athelwold worked with Oswald, Bishop of Worcester and Archbishop of York, and Dunstan, Archbishop of Canterbury, to introduce a wide ranging reform programme. He was responsible for translating the Rule of Benedict from Latin into Old English and producing a version specifically for nuns. Together the three men worked with Edgar resulting in the “Regularis Concordia Anglicae Nationis monachorum sanctimonialiumque” in 973 AD. This moved the focus of Benedict’s original Rule to greater emphasis on liturgical practice and reduced the role of education. All monasteries were brought under the patronage of the King but nevertheless were still required to follow the Rule. After Edgar’s death the nobles reacted against the many privileges which had been transferred to the Church resulting in a period of anti-monasticism, which was then exacerbated by the renewed Viking invasions.

In the 11^th century the Danish invasions, particularly during the reign of Athelred Unrede, disrupted the reform programme although there was a brief respite during the reign of Cnut. When Edward the Confessor became King he oversaw a move to Norman monasticism, moving away from establishing monk-bishops, although still following the Rule. Other religious houses, such as Franciscans, Cistercians and Dominicans, only appeared in England in later centuries.

Treaty of Eamont Bridge, 12^th July 927

12th July 927 AD is an important day in English history. The Treaty of Eamont Bridge was agreed under oath by all the Kings of Britain to King Athelstan. This is often seen as the date of the foundation of the nation of England.

The chronicler John of Worcester expanded on details in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

 “Fiery lights in the northern part of the heavens were visible throughout the whole of England. Shortly afterward, Sihtric, king of Northumbria, departed this life, and king Athelstan expelled Guthferth his son and successor, and united the kingdom to the others which were under his imperial sway, for he defeated in battle and put to flight all the kings throughout Albion; for instance, Howel, king of the West Britons (the Welsh), and afterwards Constantine, king of the Scots, and Wuer (Owen) king of the Wenti (q. Gwent). He also expelled Aldred, the son of Eadulf, from his royal town called by the English Bebbanbyrig (Bamborough). All these, finding that they could no longer resist his power, sued for peace, and assembling at a place called Eamont, on the fourth of the ides [the 12th] of July, ratified by their oaths a solemn treaty.”

Edward the Elder had previously received submissions but these were never as convincing as those given to Athelstan, who exercised firm control over Northumbria. It wasn’t all plain sailing. In 934 AD he had to put down challenges in Scotland, and in 937 AD the unrest culminated in the Battle of Brunanburh – of which more in another post. However, the beginnings of the concept of England may be considered to start at Eamont with Athelstan’s vison of a united island of Britain.

In 926 AD Athelstan had married one of his sisters, Eadgyth, to Sihtric, the Danish king in York in an attempt to negate threats along his northern borders. However, Sihtric’s death in 927 AD provided Athelstan with the opportunity to annexe Northumbria and this convinced the other kings to agree to the treaty. The site of Eamont Bridge may have been chosen as being on the border with Strathclyde and Cumbria, was in situated on the Roman road network at a key junction. Nearby was an impressive pre-historic barrow, the remains of a massive ceremonial site, which may have added authority to the meeting place. The nearby Lowther Cross, an 8-9th century cross, is a further reminder that the area was culturally significant and may indicate the site of a monastery.

The kings who agreed the treaty included King Owain of Strathclyde, Constantine, King of the Scots, Hywel Dda of Deheubarth (southwest Wales), Ealdred of Bamburgh and probably the British King of Cumbria. They each gave up their kingdoms and were reinstated as tributaries with mutual pledges of peace.  Importantly they pledged not to ally with non-Christian kings which prevented agreements being made with the Vikings of Dublin. Constantine’s son was also baptised.

Athelstan had now established his northern border with Strathclyde and Cumbria along the Eamont, Ullswater and the Duddon valley to the sea. With the submission of the kings, he was now able to call himself “rex totius Britanniae” or “King of all Britain” on his coins.

Feast Day of St Mildthryth, 13^th July

Death of King Eorcenberht of Kent, 14^th July 664

Death of Archbishop Deusdedit, 14^th July 664

The Feast Day of Deusdedit, the first native born Archbishop of Canterbury, is 14th July.

Deusdedit was the sixth Archbishop of Canterbury and the first native incumbent. Beorhtwald (9^th January) was the first in the continuous line of English Archbishops of Canterbury to the current day, but before him there were two other Englishmen, and Deusdedit was the first of them. Goscelin records his birth name as Frithona, probably meaning Frithuwine, and he was a West Saxon in origin.

Deusdedit became Archbishop in March 655 AD, succeeding Archbishop Honorius.

In 657 AD he consecrated the monastery at Peterborough (Medehamstede) and it was also possibly Deudedit who consecrated Minster-in-Thanet, and the 70 nuns who served there including Mildthryth (see 13^th July), as it was probably founded before his death.

Although he consecrated Damianus as successor to Ithamar, Bishop of Rochester, during his rule, all the other new bishops in England were consecrated by other Bishops such as Agilbert, who was from Frankia and who ordained Wilfrid. This implies Deusdedit may not have had much influence outside the diocese of Canterbury.

According to Bede Deusdedit died on 14th July at the time of the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD:

“On the fourteenth of July in the above mentioned year, when an eclipse was quickly followed by plague and during which Bishop Colman was refuted by the unanimous decision of the Catholics and returned to his own country, Deusdedit the sixth Archbishop of Canterbury died.”

Deusdedit did not appear on the list of witnesses at Whitby, no doubt because of the plague in his See, and it was probably this plague that caused his death. He was buried at St Augustine’s in Canterbury but his grave is no longer marked.

After he died the Archbishopric remained vacant for four years. Another English Archbishop was elected, Wigheard, but he died in Rome before he could receive his pallium. Finally Theodore of Tarsus was sent to take up the role in 668 AD. 

Feast Day of St Swithun, 15^th July

St Swithun was a 9^th century Bishop of Winchester and his Feast Day is 15^th July. Legend has it that if it rains on St Swithun’s Day it will rain for 40 days more.

“St Swithun’s day if thou dost rain

For forty days it will remain

St Swithun’s day if thou be fair

For forty days ’twill rain nae mare”

Swithun was consecrated Bishop of Winchester on 30^th October 852 AD. He actually died on 2^nd July but 15^th July is his Feast Day. Few contemporary records mention him and he attested a few charters. However, during the church reforms of the 10^th century it was decided to adopt Swithun as the patron saint of Winchester and his remains were moved from his grave to the new building on 15^th July 971 AD.

There is no reliable evidence for his early life but tradition states that Swithun was born in Wessex and ordained by the Bishop of Winchester. He became known to the king (Egbert) who made him tutor to his son Athelwulf. This was the same Athelwulf who was the father of Alfred the Great. When Athelwulf became king he appointed Swithun to the Bishopric at Winchester when that became vacant; Swithun was ordained by Archbishop Ceolnoth.

The various hagiographies record miracles and his exemplary piety and humility. In particular he is known to have restored some eggs. These were broken as an old woman was crossing a bridge and hearing her crying the good Bishop returned them to her once more intact.

He is also credited with the repair and restoration of many churches, and of course with persuading the King to donate wealth to the church. Supposedly he travelled on foot around his diocese rather than riding, and preferred to feed the poor than feast with the rich.

When he died he asked to be buried outside the church and his grave was placed in front of the west door of the Old Minster so that he was accessible to the people and to the rain from heaven. When his remains were moved to precious reliquary inside the new basilica in 971 AD there followed 40 days of atrocious weather, indicating his irritation at the change.

He was moved again in the 11^th century to the new Norman Cathedral; the weather was not recorded and he remained behind the high altar until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the16^th century. His cult was very popular and attracted many pilgrims.

It has been suggested that the weather forecast element of Swithun’s legacy is linked to an ancient tradition. There are similar stories associated with a number of saints or other stories (such as the tradition of the Seven Sleepers). Mid-July is when the jet stream settles into a pattern which, in the majority of years, holds reasonably steady until the end of August. When the jet stream lies north of the British Isles then continental high pressure is able to move in; when it lies across or south of the British Isles, Arctic air and Atlantic weather systems predominate. So it is possible that the weather on St Swithun’s Day may be typical of the weather pattern for the coming weeks.

St Swithun is also the patron saint of Stavanger in Norway and the Cathedral of 1125 was originally dedicated to him. It was built by Bishop Reinald who may have come from Winchester originally. St Swithun is commemorated on 2^nd July in Norway.

Feast Day of St Helier and St Marcoulf, 16^th July

16th July marks the remembrance of St Helier and St Marcoulf, saints of Jersey. Their story is so intertwined that it almost always is told as one.

The legend of Helier describes him as the child of pagan parents who had been unable to conceive children until they asked a Christian holy man to help them. He did so, on the condition that any child should be given to the Church and they agreed. When a son was born they couldn’t bear to part with him and refused to keep their promise until, at the age of seven, the boy became seriously ill. The holy man took him to care for him and named him Helier.

Helier was happy with the holy man and in due time became a healer. People brought their sick relatives to him and he was able to make them well with the touch of his hand. However, his parents’ friends wanted to bring the child back home and killed the holy man one night. Helier ran away into the forest until he found a church near a town where he lived alone for several years, helped by a widow, and again healing the sick who came to him. One day he was able to restore a baby to life and that night had a vision telling him to go to Nanteuil, where he would find a new teacher called Marcoulf.

Marcoulf was a missionary who was trying to build a monastery, and Helier stayed to help him before moving out to the Channel Islands to convert the people there, taking with him a priest called Romardus. Helier built a hermitage on a rock where he lived. Local people brought a paralysed man and a lame man to him to be healed. After he had done so they left imprints of their feet on the rock.

Helier lived there for three more years when Marcoulf came to see him. While he was there a fleet of Saxon pirate ships came to the islands but the prayers of the saints brought up a storm and destroyed the fleet, with a few of the Saxons managing to get to land; they were soon dealt with by the islanders.

Marcoulf returned to the mainland to continue his work and Helier stayed in his hermitage twelve more years before another Saxon fleet arrived, found his hermitage and killed him.

His body was taken back to the French mainland and his relics held at the Abbey of Bellus-Beccus in Normandy but have since been lost to the depredations of fire, time and the French Revolution.

He died around the year 555/558 AD and tradition has it that Marcoulf also died around this time in the Cotentin.  In fact there is no solid evidence Helier ever existed, or if he did, that he came to Jersey.

Death of King Edward the Elder, 17^th July 924

Death of St Eadburh, 18^th July 650

On 18^th July we remember St. Eadburh (Edburga) of Bicester, Abbess of Aylesbury, who died on this day in 650 AD. Her father was supposedly Penda, the last great pagan king of Mercia. However, a number of Penda’s children converted to Christianity, and Eadburh was one of them.

She was initially a nun at Castor at her sister Cyneburh’s (Cuneburga) monastery (see 15^th September). Then she and another sister, Eadgyth (Edith) founded a small monastery at Aylesbury, built on land given by Penda. The sisters were joined by their young niece Osgyth, the daughter of yet another sister, Wilburh, and King Frithuwold, who was the sub-King of Surrey under Penda.  They fostered Osgyth (see 7^th October) who later also became a saint.

Aylesbury (Aglesburh) had an Iron Age fort and settlement. It had been taken in the year 571 AD by Cutwulph, brother of Ceawlin, King of Wessex, following a battle at Bedford. It became a prosperous settlement during the later Anglo-Saxon period, and this may have been helped by the relics of Osgyth which attracted pilgrims. The current church, St. Mary the Virgin, has a crypt which has been dated back to the Saxon period, although the main church dates only to the first half of the 13^th century.

Eadburh died at Aylesbury on 18th July AD 650 but failed to gain the later popularity of her niece Osyth with pilgrims. However, tradition has it that the villages of Adderbury and Edburton near Bicester are named after her.

It seems Eadburh travelled more widely in death than life. In 1182, her relics were translated to Bicester Priory, where they did become popular with medieval pilgrims. In 1500 some of her relics were taken to Flanders on the direction of the Pope, although their current whereabouts is not known. A shrine remained at Bicester until 1536 in the Dissolution of the Monasteries. The shrine was salvaged and moved to Stanton Harcourt St Michael’s by Sir Simon Harcourt and its remains can be seen today.

Death of King Oswulf of Northumbria, 24^th July 759

Oswulf, King of Northumbria died on 24^th July 759 AD at Market Weighton in East Yorkshire. He was murdered. Northumbria was entering a period of instability which would end with the Viking Kingdom of York being established in 866 AD. His father Eadbert’s reign had caused controversy and Oswulf was not universally supported.

The Northumbrian royal dynasty had seen the death of Osric in 729 AD and he was followed by the Ceolwulf, the younger brother of the usurper Cenred. Ceolwulf was the king to whom Bede dedicated his Ecclesiastical History of the English People in 731 AD in which he recorded the death of Osric as the penultimate entry.

“In the year 729, comets appeared; the holy Egbert departed; and Osric died.”

Ceolwulf ruled until 737 AD when he abdicated to become a monk. He was succeeded by Eadbert, brother of Ecgbert, the first Archbishop of York.  Eadbert ruled, with greater military competence than Ceolwulf, until 758 AD when he also abdicated to enter a religious life at the Abbey in York. Eadbert was engaged in warfare against Mercia and the Pictish kingdoms for much of his reign, and in 740 AD he executed Eanwine, the son of a former king of Northumbria called Eadwulf (ruled 704-5 AD). Eanwine was probably working with the Mercians against Eadbert, who was decisive and brutal against opposition. In 750 AD he faced another claimant to his throne called Offa, and defeated him. Offa fled to Lindisfarne to claim sanctuary. Eadbert did not want to offend the Church by forcibly removing Offa, so he starved him out instead, and imprisoned the Bishop of Hexham who was probably a supporter of Offa. The story of Offa is told by Simeon of Durham:

“During the reign of Eadbert, who (as we have already mentioned) succeeded Ceolwulf, the bishopric of the church of Lindisfame was held by Cynewulf for some considerable length of time, but under many annoyances and misfortunes. One of the royal family, named Offa, in order to escape from the persecutions of his enemies, fled to the body of St. Cuthbert, but having been forcibly dragged away from it, he was wickedly put to death. Hereupon, king Eadbert highly displeased laid hold upon bishop Cynewulf, and commanded him to be imprisoned in Bebbanburch, and in the meantime the bishopric of Lindisfarne was administered by Friothubert, bishop of Hexham, until the king becoming appeased released Cynewulf from his confinement, and permitted him to return to his church.”

Eadbert was also supposedly successful in his international relations, and corresponded with King Pepin of Francia, who sent him costly gifts.

Oswulf was Eadbert’s son, and succeeded his father when he abdicated. However, his hold on the throne was short-lived and he was murdered within a year, by members of his household who were probably related to Eanwine, or as Simeon puts it “wickedly slain by his domestics.”

Athelwold “Moll” was elected within a couple of weeks to succeed him, although his claim on the throne is not clear and his reign was also disastrous and so the century of turmoil in Northumbria began.

Earl Siward of Northumbria defeated Macbeth, King of Scotland, 27^th July 1054

On 27th July 1054 Earl Siward of Northumbria defeated Macbeth, King of Scotland. This battle also saw the death of Siward’s son Osbearn, with significant consequences for the future of England. Siward’s younger son Waltheof was too young to succeed his father when he died in 1055, so Tostig Godwinson was given the Earldom. But for that fatal accident things may have been very different in 1066.

Let’s look at what was happening in Scotland during the 11th century, and find out why Siward was campaigning there.

At the end of the 10th century Kenneth II was king of Scotland, and was succeeded by Constantine III in 995 AD. Scottish kings were chosen from any eligible male descendant of a previous monarch, so the throne often changed between various lines of descent. While this could work successfully, it could also lead to feuds between families, and in fact the two kings after Constantine (Kenneth III and Malcolm II) were both his cousins, and both killed their respective predecessor in order to gain the throne.

However, Kenneth II’s son, Malcolm II, took the throne in 1005 by killing Kenneth III and his son Giric at the Battle of Monzievaird on 25th March. Although referred to as the High King of Scotland he ruled alongside other kings such as the Kings of Strathclyde, the Hebrides and Moray, as well as various kings along the west coast. He ruled for an unusually long time until 1034. He had no sons but married his three daughters to potential rivals to secure their loyalty.

Having secured his position at home as best he could, he then took advantage of the chaos in England brought about by the Viking threat and Athelred Unrede’s hapless government to invade. He marched south with Owen the Bald, King of Strathclyde, and fought the English at the Battle of Carham (Coldstream) in 1016/1018 where they defeated Earl Uhtred of Northumbria. Simeon of Durham does not mention Uhtred in his version of the events:

“In the year of our Lord’s incarnation ten hundred and eighteen, while Cnut ruled the kingdom of the Angles, a comet appeared for thirty nights to the people of Northumbria, a terrible presage of the calamity by which that province was about to be desolated. For, shortly afterwards, (that is, after thirty days,) nearly the whole population, from the river Tees to the Tweed, and their borders, were cut off in a conflict in which they were engaged with a countless multitude of Scots at Carrun [Carham].”

The date of the battle is controversial because while there was a comet in 1018, Uhtred had already died in 1016. It is unclear what was achieved as the area had previously been granted to Kenneth II by the English King Edgar in 973 AD. Malcolm had also raided into Northumbria in 1006 after first taking the throne, and besieged Durham, but on that occasion Uhtred had been successful in driving him out.

Trouble flared up again around 1027/31 when Cnut returned from a pilgrimage to Rome and led an invasion into Scotland. This may have been following Cnut’s coronation in Rome, at which it is possible that Malcolm was present and may have snubbed him. Peace was obtained between the two through the intervention of Cnut’s brother-in-law, Richard of Normandy, and Cnut was given a promise of friendship; this was not the “aid on land and sea” previously agreed with Edgar, and the Anglo-Saxon Chronicles note that:

“This year king Cnut went to Rome. And so soon as he came home then went he into Scotland: and the king of the Scots, Malcolm, submitted to him, and became his man, but that he held only a little while; and two other kings, Maelbaeth [Macbeth] and Jehmarc”

However, Cnut had bigger problems in Norway and did not return to Scotland.

Malcolm then died on 25th November 1034 at Glamis. The Annals of Tigernach record:

“Maolcoluim son of Cinaedh, king of Scotland, glory of the whole west of Europe, died.”

He was succeeded by Duncan I on 30th November 1034, who ruled for five years and nine months, according to Irish records.

Duncan was known as Duncan the Sick, and was the son of Crinan, who had married Bethoc, one of the daughters of Malcolm II. He had two sons, Malcolm III and Duncan II of Scotland, kings in their own turn. His reign seems to have been uneventful on the whole. In 1039 he led an army south to besiege Durham, which was unsuccessful. The following year, 1040 he led his army into Moray where Macbeth was the Mormar (Earl or Duke) and was killed in the fighting near Elgin, probably on 14th August 1040. It was noted that he was still a young man when he died.

Now Macbeth succeeded to the throne of Scotland, with no known opposition, and ruled for seventeen years. Again his reign was generally peaceful, although no doubt there was some opposition. There is a record of a battle involving Duncan’s father, Crinan, in 1045. Macbeth was also known to have gone on pilgrimage to Rome in 1050, so presumably his kingdom was stable and peaceful enough for him to be absent. In 1052 he received a number of Norman exiles from Edward the Confessor’s court. He also successfully repelled the invasion in 1054 by Siward, a bloody battle which was recorded in the Annals of Ulster:

“A battle between the men of Scotland and the English in which fell 3000 of the Scots and 1500 of the English, including Doilfinn son of Finntor.”

Macbeth died three years later in 1057 at the Battle of Lumphanan in August 1057, fighting the future Malcolm III, son of Duncan, who also killed Macbeth’s step-son Lulach to take the throne.

Macbeth is described in The Prophecy of Berchán, as “the generous king of Fortriu” and as:

“The red, tall, golden-haired one, he will be pleasant to me among them; Scotland will be brimful west and east during the reign of the furious red one”

Malcolm III treacherously killed Lulach on 23rd April 1058 according to the Annals of Tigernach, and then reigned until 1093. He was married to Edward the Confessor’s relative, Queen Margaret of Scotland who had returned to England from Hungary with her brother Edgar the Atheling. She fled to Scotland with her mother, brother and sister in 1069 and married Malcolm in 1070. Malcolm had previously been married to Ingiborg and it is therefore assumed she died before 1070.

Malcolm had raided into England during the 1060s and also provided sanctuary for Tostig Godwinson before 1066, but did not involve himself in any of the battles that year. However, in 1069 with the threat of invasion by Harold Godwinson’s cousin, Sweyn II, King of Denmark, Malcolm invaded England once again and wasted Teesdale and Cleveland before returning north with Edgar the Atheling and family.

William of Normandy then attacked Scotland in 1072 once he was more secure and Malcolm met him at Abernethy:

“This year king William led a ship army and a land army to Scotland, and beset that land on the sea-ports with ships, and his land army he [himself] led in at the “Gerwaede”, and there he found nothing by which he was the better. And the king Malcolm came and made his peace with the king William, and gave hostages (with consequences later as we shall see), and became his vassal; and the king returned home with all his army.”

Once William had died Malcolm ignored the further unrest in England led by followers of Robert Curthose against William II Rufus until 1091 when William Rufus confiscated the lands of his brother-in-law Edgar Atheling. He besieged Newcastle and finally a peace was agreed. However, in 1093 William Rufus took Malcolm’s English estates and refused to negotiate over their return:

“The king of Scotland sent and desired [the completion of] the treaty which had been promised him, and the king William summoned him to Gloucester, and sent him hostages to Scotland; and Edgar etheling returned, and the men who had brought him with great honour to the king. But when he had come to the king, he could not be considered worthy either of speech with our king, nor of the promise which had been formerly promised him. And therefore they parted from each other with great want of concord, and the king Malcolm went home to Scotland. And shortly after he had come home he gathered his army together, and went harrying into England with greater want of wisdom than behoved him; and Robert, the earl of Northumberland, with his men betrayed him unawares and slew him. Morael, of Bamborough, slew him; he was the earl’s steward, and a fellow-sponsor along with earl Malcolm. With him also was slain his son Edward, who would have been king after him if he had lived. When the good queen Margaret had heard this, that her most beloved lord and son were thus betrayed, she was oppressed on her mind almost to death. She went with her priests to church, and performed her rites, and prayed before God that she might give up her ghost. And the Scots then chose Dufenal, Melcolm’s brother, for their king, and drove out all the English who were formerly with king Melcolm.

When Dunecan, king Melcolm’s son, heard all this how it had occurred (he was then in the court of king William, for his father had formerly given him as a hostage to our king, and he remained here afterwards), he came to the king, and did such fealty as the king would have had for him ; and so with his permission he went to Scotland, with the assistance which he might procure of English and of French ; and he deprived his uncle Dufenal of the kingdom, and was accepted as king. But the Scots afterwards gathered some [troops] together, and slew nearly all his retinue; and he himself escaped with a few. Afterwards they were reconciled, on the condition that he should never afterwards give a settlement either to English or French in that land.”

Malcolm had been ambushed on his way home and he and his son Edward were killed at the Battle of Alnwick on 13th November 1093.

He was buried at Tynemouth Priory where he remained until his son had his body transferred to Dunfermline Abbey. His wife Margaret (see 10^th June) was canonised in 1250 and her bones placed in a reliquary and taken to Dunfermline Abbey. As they passed the spot where Malcolm lay, her reliquary became too heavy to move and so Malcolm’s remains were also disinterred and the couple were buried together beside the altar, reunited after more than 150 years.

Discovery of the Sutton Hoo helmet, 28^th July 1939

Death of King Offa of Mercia, 29^th July 796

On 29th July 796 AD King Offa of Mercia died. This was the man who caused to be built the eponymous Dyke, who corresponded with Charlemagne, who issued international currency and who was acknowledged as Bretwalda, the High King. His wife Cynethryth was the only Anglo-Saxon Queen known to issue her own coinage.

Read more about Offa

Death of Archbishop Tatwine, 30^th July 734

Tatwine was Archbishop of Canterbury from 731 AD until he died in office on 30^th July 734 AD.

He was highly regarded as a scholar. According to Bede he had previously been a monk at Breedon-on-the-Hill before he became the 9^th Archbishop of Canterbury since Augustine.

“In the year of our Lord’s incarnation 731, Archbishop Bertwald died of old age, on the 9th of January, having held his see thirty-seven years, six months and fourteen days. In his stead, the same year, Tatwine, of the province of the Mercians, was made archbishop, having been a priest in the monastery called Briudun. He was consecrated in the city of Canterbury by the venerable men, Daniel, bishop of Winchester, Ingwald of London, Aldwin of Lichfield, and Aldwulf of Rochester, on Sunday, the 10th of June, being a man renowned for religion and wisdom, and notably learned in Sacred Writ.”

While noting his scholarship, Bede gives no reason for this surprising elevation. Apart from consecrating the Bishops of Lindsey and Selsey in 733 AD, there is little else known about his rule.

Tatwine has left us two surviving works in Latin. The first is a collection of 40 enigmata (riddles) inspired by the ones written by Aldhelm a generation before, and the “Ars Grammatica Tatuini” (the grammatical arts of Tatwine), based on the works of Prisian and Consentius.

The riddles are very sophisticated, and seek to develop a theological framework expounding the human mind’s attempt to understand divine mysteries. Tatwine uses the acrostic form in doing so.

His Latin grammar is one of the earliest surviving Anglo-Latin grammars. It teaches elementary grammar using ecclesiastical terms to illustrate key points and would have been used in church classrooms. 

Murder of St Wigstan, 1^st June 849

On the calends of June [June 1], the eve of Whitsunday, Beorhtfrith, son of Beorhtwulf, king of the Mercians, unjustly slew his relation St Wigstan (also Wystan, Wistan).

The chronicler John of Worcester takes up the story:

“Now this man (Wigstan) was the grandson of two Mercian kings: for his father Wigmund was son of king Wiglaf, but his mother AIfleda was daughter of king Ceolwulf. But his body, being borne to the monastery at that time so famous, named Reopedun [REPTON], was buried in the mausoleum of his grandfather King Wiglaf. To his martyrdom heavenly miracles were not wanting: for from the place in which the innocent youth was slain, a column of light, stretching up to heaven, was visible for 30 days to all the neighbours of that place.”

The Mercian royal families are a complex web of intrigue and politics.

Ceolwulf I of Mercia was deposed in 823 AD and succeeded by Beornwulf. After Beornwulf’s death in 826 AD fighting the East Angles, the kingdom was ruled by an ealdorman, Ludeca, until he died in 827 AD when he was also killed in battle against the East Angles with five of his ealdormen trying to avenge the death of Beornwulf. Wiglaf then took power, but in fighting against Ecgberht of Wessex he was expelled from the kingdom in 829 AD and only regained his throne in 830 AD. He then married his son Wigmund to one Alfflaed (Alfleda), daughter of Ceolwulf I, presumably in an attempt to stabilise the situation. Wigmund and Alfflaed had a son called Wigstan.

Wiglaf died around 838 AD, but Wigmund only lived another two years and in 840 AD the throne probably went back to the B-dynasty in the person of Beorhtwulf, assuming he was descended from Beornwulf. Wigstan had preferred to follow a monastic calling.

Beorhtwulf’s son Beorhtfrith then tried to marry Alfflaed. Wigstan objected on the basis that they were too closely connected by blood.

In 849 AD Beorhtfrith took revenge on Wigstan, at Wistowe in Leicestershire and murdered him.

Wigstan was buried at Repton with his father and grandfather. His shrine rapidly became a popular destination and the church was remodelled to accommodate the volume of visitors. However, in 874 AD the Viking occupation of Repton saw the end of the reign of King Burgred, who had succeeded Beorhtwulf in 852 AD, and was replaced with Ceolwulf II who was probably a relative of Wigstan’s.

St Oda’s Feast Day, 2^nd June

St Oda’s Feast Day is celebrated on 2^nd June. He was of Viking descent, born in East Anglia. He fought at the Battle of Brunanburh (937 AD) for King Athelstan and miraculously re-forged a sword that was broken.

Oda’s father had been a warrior in the Norse army of Ivarr and he settled in England. Oda was brought up as an English and Christian thane. He was also given the English name of Athelhelm and he decided to enter the church. About 926 AD he became Bishop of Ramsbury and was an important counsellor to King Athelstan, including being one of the team sent to negotiate the restoration of Athelstan’s nephew, Louis d’Outremer, as King of the Franks in 936 AD.

It would seem that during this visit he became a monk at Fleury-sur-Loire. He was obviously a man of talent because only 5 years later, in 941 AD, he became Archbishop of Canterbury.

Oda was a keen and determined reformer taking particular interest in the area of England that had been under the greatest Danish influence, East Anglia and the East Midlands. He kept his links with Fleury as well, and sent his nephew, Oswald (later Archbishop of York) to study there. He was also involved in Dunstan’s church reforms, and Dunstan admired him greatly, calling him “Oda se gode” (Oda the Good).

Oda crowned King Eadwig in 956 AD but quarrelled with him in 958 AD and took the part of Edgar who was rivalling his brother for power. He annulled Eadwig’s marriage on the basis of close kinship, almost certainly in a political act to support Edgar.

Oda died on 2^nd June 958 AD.

Miracles were recorded, including one written down in a “Life” shortly before 1100 AD by Eadmer who based it largely on the work of Byrhtferth, writing a century earlier at Ramsey Abbey. The Abbey had been founded by Oda’s nephew Oswald. The miracle in question occurred at the Battle of Brunanburh (937 AD) at which Athelstan broke his sword:

“The king had brought blessed Oda into battle with him, trusting that he would defeat the enemy much more by the merits of this man than with hordes of soldiers. And while the most bitter and wretched slaughter was happening all about, a lamentable event occurred. For while King Athelstan was fighting, his sword shattered close to the hilt and exposed him to his enemies, as if he were defenceless. Meanwhile Oda stood somewhat removed from the fighting, praying to Christ with his lips and in his heart for the safety of the Christian army, and for the sake of this continually raised his face, hands and eyes to those in heaven. 
The king was perplexed about what to do in such a situation, for he thought it unspeakable to take a weapon from one of his men in order to arm himself. When a group of his adversaries noticed that the king had a broken sword and was unarmed, though they had begun to flee they turned their faces back to battle and set about obtaining revenge for their shameful flight by killing him most cruelly. Then all at once the air resounded with the clamour of the multitude crying out both for God to offer assistance and for venerable Oda to come forth as quickly as possible.
He raced up to the king and, although weary, asked what it was he wanted him to do. He listened to the king and immediately responded with these words: “What is the problem? What is worrying you? Your blade hangs intact at your side and yet you complain that it is broken. Come to your senses, extend your hand to the sheath, draw the sword and, behold, the right hand of the Lord shall be with you. And be not afraid, since the sun will not set until either flight or destruction envelops the enemies of your Lord who have risen up against you.”
At these words all those who were listening were struck with great amazement, and casting their glance towards the king they saw hanging by his side the sword, which had not been there when they had looked earlier. Snatching it and taking comfort in the Lord, the king advanced and maimed or put to flight or dealt death to all the men rushing upon him from both his left and right. And so in accordance with the prediction of the servant of God, it came to pass that the king gained victory over his enemies exactly as the sun was setting.”

In this way the son of one of Ivarr’s warriors helped the Anglo-Saxon King to his great victory over the Viking and Scots armies at Brunanburh.

Death of Boniface, 5^th June 754

On 5th June 754 AD Boniface, later a saint, died. He was a missionary from Devon, born around 675 AD, and originally named Winfrith, and he adopted the name of “Boniface” later.

As a young child he entered the church; Willibald writing in his “Life of Boniface” suggests this was against the wishes of his father.

“After some time, when he had given long consideration to the things of God and his whole nature craved for a future life, he revealed his desires to his father and begged him to take his confidences in good part. His father, taken aback at the views he expressed, rebuked him with violence and, while forbidding him to leave his side, enticed him with promises of worldly success, hoping by this means to retain the boy as guardian, or rather heir of his worldly possessions. Employing all the subtle craft of human wisdom, he endeavoured by long discussions to dissuade the boy from carrying out his purpose, and mingled promises with flattery in the hope of persuading him that life in the world would be more congenial for one of his age than the austere regime of the monastic and contemplative life. In order to turn the boy aside from pursuing his purpose he paraded before him all the inducements of pleasure and luxury. But the saint, even at that early age, was filled with the spirit of God.”

His father fell sick after a while and relented in his opinion, and Boniface entered the monastery in Exeter under Abbot Wulfhard, but soon moved to Nursling in Hampshire. Nursling was close to Winchester, which was a great centre of learning, and Boniface taught in the Abbey school, becoming a priest at the canonical age of 30. Eventually he chose to devote himself to spreading the Christian message in Frisia. Accordingly, he went to Utrecht and stayed a year with Willibrord, the Apostle of the Frisians, trying to preach. However, the area was subject to the effects of the war between Charles Martel (grandfather of Charlemagne) and the Frisians so Boniface returned to Nursling. Willibald explains:

“A strange thing in the sanctity of the saints is that when they perceive that their labours are frustrated for a time and bear no spiritual fruit they betake themselves to other places where the results are more palpable, for there is nothing to be gained if one stays in a place without reaping a harvest of souls. With this in mind, when the saint had spent the whole of the summer in the country of the Frisians to no purpose and the autumn was nearing its end, he forsook the pastures that lay parched through lack of heavenly and fruitful dew, and, taking several companions with him for the journey, he departed to his native land.”

When the Abbot of Nursling, Winbert, died, Boniface turned down the abbacy. It may be that the two were related and it was assumed Boniface (Winfrith) would take over. Instead he went to Rome where the Pope appointed him to serve as Bishop of Germania and to “make a report on the savage peoples of Germany.” The purpose of this was to discover whether their untutored hearts and minds were ready to receive the seed of the divine Word.”

The church had no structure or organisation in Germania at the time. He started his mission in Thuringia with mixed success, then moved on to Frankia where he discovered that the King of the Frisians, Radbod, who had been fighting Charles Martel, had died and this presented Boniface with the opportunity to return to Frisia under the protection of Charles Martel. Working again with Willibrord, his mission was initially successful in converting large numbers of Frisians to Christianity.

In time Boniface moved on from working with Willibrord and travelled further into Germania, where again he had successes in his mission.

He went to Rome for a second time, in 722 AD, when he was ordained as Bishop and began a mission in Hesse and Thuringia. During this time he demonstrated the aggressive nature of the mission by felling the Donar Oak at Geismar. The Germanic tribes in the area dedicated particular holy trees to the gods, and this oak was an example of this practice. When a missionary succeeded in felling a holy tree without the gods punishing him, the people often held that this indicated the Christian god was stronger, and so were more willing to convert. This technique was widely used by the missionaries at the time and the there was widespread destruction of pagan shrines and trees as a result. This, along with the tendency to convert the king and nobles first, meant that large numbers of people came into the Church, as the view of kingship was that the king was divine and should be followed in matters of religion.

Boniface was in Rome for the third time in 732 AD and following the report of his successes in Germania, he was ordained Archbishop by the Pope on 30th November.

Boniface returned once again to Germania, and over the next few years established a number of bishoprics in and around Bavaria. The continuing support of Charles Martel and, after his death in 741 AD, of his sons was critical to the success of the mission. Boniface’s relationship with Pepin was more stormy than with Charles or Carloman, but he balanced the challenges by referring to the Bavarian rulers and the papacy when needed.

In 753 AD Boniface resigned his See at Mainz and in 754 AD set out once more for Frisia, his first passion.

On 5th June 754 AD he was killed in Frisia by robbers, and although this appears to have been an attack for the purpose of theft rather than religiously motivated, he was afterwards regarded as a martyr. Willibald reports him saying to his attendants, who were trying to mount an armed defence:

“Sons, cease fighting. Lay down your arms, for we are told in Scripture not to render evil for good but to overcome evil by good. The hour to which we have long looked forward is near and the day of our release is at hand. Take comfort in the Lord and endure with gladness the suffering He has mercifully ordained. Put your trust in Him and He will grant deliverance to your souls.”

He then spoke to the clergy saying:

“Brethren, be of stout heart, fear not them who kill the body, for they cannot slay the soul, which continues to live for ever. Rejoice in the Lord; anchor your hope in God, for without delay He will render to you the reward of eternal bliss and grant you an abode with the angels in His heaven above. Be not slaves to the transitory pleasures of this world. Be not seduced by the vain flattery of the heathen, but endure with steadfast mind the sudden, onslaught of death, that you may be able to reign evermore with Christ.”

His “Life”, written by his disciple Willibald, was produced within a few years of his death, and his cult became centred on the monastery at Fulda. The Ragyndrudis Codex, held at Fulda along with Boniface’s remains, has cuts possibly caused by a sword or axe, and is believed to have been damaged in the attack.

Death of Alfthryth, 7^th June 929

Alfthryth was the youngest daughter of Alfred the Great. She died on 7^th June 929 AD in Flanders, having married Baldwin II (the Bald), Count of Flanders, and is buried at St Peter’s Abbey in Ghent.

Her children included Arnulf I of Flanders and Adalulf, Count of Boulogne.

Through her children the current Queen Elizabeth II can trace her family tree back to Alfred (and, of course, from there back to Woden).

Amounderness Charter, 7^th June 934

An interesting charter of King Athelstan is dated 7^th June 934 AD. Known as S407 (Sawyer), it gave lands at a place called Amounderness to the church of St Peter, York. St Peter’s is also known as York Minster, the seat of the Archbishop of York.

Amounderness is in Lancashire, in the North-West of England, about 100 miles from York itself. However, it was not unusual for land ownership to be spread around the country.

The derivation of the name is Norse and probably from the Norse name Agmundr, although earlier interpretations have it as derived from words meaning Oak-Protection-Ness (a ness is a promontory of land). Agmundr was a warrior of the Viking kings of Jorvik who died at the Battle of Tettenhall in 910 AD.

The charter was granted to the church in York a few years after King Athelstan purchased it in 926 AD. It was also after the Treaty of Eamont in 927 AD when the kings of Deheubarth, Strathclyde and Scotland, along with the lord of Bamburgh, all recognised Athelstan’s over-lordship. It was a grudging acknowledgement in some quarters and while it resulted in several years of peace, Athelstan invaded Scotland by 934 AD. The reason for this invasion is not entirely clear. It was possibly following the death of Guthfrith, the Norse king of Dublin who had also ruled in Northumbria, and whose death therefore destabilised the Viking kingdom.

The Archbishop of York in 934 AD was Wulfstan I, and he was loyal to Athelstan, so giving Wulfstan control of this area of land would have benefited the king significantly in terms of security as well as explicitly emphasising his control of the north. Equally by rewarding Wulfstan, Athelstan was binding the Archbishop closer to him through his gift, which in turn demanded a reciprocal loyalty.

The bonds did not last beyond Athelstan’s death in 939 AD. When Olaf Guthfrithson, King of Dublin, invaded to take York back into Viking control, Wulfstan arranged a meeting between him and King Edmund in 940 AD. Olaf died later that year, to be replaced by Olaf Sitricson and Ragnald Guthfrithson. Wulfstan and the ealdormen drove them out in 944 AD, and Edmund regained control. But then Wulfstan invited Eric Bloodaxe to become king of Jorvik (York) in 947 AD. In 951 AD Wulfstan no longer witnessed charters of the English king when he was out of favour. He was deprived of his Archbishopric in 952 AD as the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle explains:

“A.D. 952. ‘In this year king Eadred commanded archbishop Wulstan to be brought into the fastness at Judanbyrig, because he had been oft accused to the king: and in this year also the king commanded great slaughter to be made in the burgh of Thetford, in revenge of the abbat Eadelm, whom they had before slain. This year the North-humbrians expelled king Anlaf, and received Yric, Harold’s son.”

Eric Bloodaxe was driven out briefly by Olaf Sitricson, but returned in 952 AD, and by 953 AD Wulfstan was once again attesting charters.

Then in 954 AD:

“the Northumbrians expelled Yric, and Eadred obtained the kingdom of the Northumbrians. This year archbishop Wulfstan again obtained a bishopric at Dorchester.”

From then on York remained under the English crown.

Baptism of Eanflaed, 8^th June 626

On Whit Sunday, 8th June 626 AD Eanflaed, the newly born baby daughter of King Edwin, was baptised with eleven others by Bishop Paulinus. This followed an assassination attempt on Edwin by the West Saxons which was foiled by his thegn, Lilla.

This is the entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

“AD 626. This year Eomer came from Cwichelm king of the West-Saxons, thinking to stab king Edwin. But he stabbed Lilla his thane, and Forthhere, and wounded the king. And on the same night a daughter was born to Edwin: she was called Eanflaed. Then the king promised Paulinus that he would give his daughter to God, if he would obtain of God that he might kill his foe who had before sent the assassin thither. And he then went with an army against the West-Saxons, and there killed five kings, and slew a great number of the people. And at Pentecost Paulinus baptised his daughter, she being one of twelve.”

Eanflaed was the daughter of Edwin and his wife Athelburh, the princess from Kent, who had brought Paulinus with her upon her marriage.

When Edwin was killed by Penda in 633 AD at the Battle of Hatfield Chase Athelburh returned to Kent with her children, and Eanflaed grew up in the south. However in 642 AD she was married to King Oswiu of Northumbria, whose father Athelfrith had killed Edwin’s father, ousted Edwin and driven him into exile. The marriage would have been an attempt to unite the two royal dynasties of Deira and Bernicia.

Oswiu was later implicated in the assassination of Oswin, king of Deira, in 651 AD. It is thought that Oswin was a relative of Eanflaed’s, which may have caused an issue in the royal household. Certainly Eanflaed then persuaded her husband to found a monastery at Gilling in recompense.

Eanflaed’s household followed the Roman liturgical calendar while Oswiu followed the Ionan / Irish tradition for the calculation of Easter. As a result the court was on occasion faced with the impossible situation of the Queen fasting for Lent and observing Palm Sunday while the King was feasting for Easter Sunday. The discrepancy did not occur every year, but eventually it became sufficiently serious that Oswiu arranged a Synod at Whitby in 664 AD to resolve the issue, among others, of the differences between the traditions.

Eanflaed’s devotion included her patronage of Wilfrid, and she is known to have recommended him to her cousin Eorcenberht, king of Kent, when Wilfrid travelled to Rome.

Eanflaed was also related to Hild, Abbess of Whitby, through Edwin, and later entrusted her daughter Alfflaed to Hild following Oswiu’s victory over Penda at Winwaed in 655 AD. Eanflaed retired to Whitby herself following Oswiu’s death in 670 AD.

After Hild died in 680 AD Eanflaed ruled as joint Abbess with her daughter Alfflaed until her own death, after which Alfflaed continued as sole Abbess.

Death of St Columba, 9^th June 597

On 9th June 597 AD Columba of Iona died, having left Ireland to spread the word of God among the Picts as penance for his role in a rebellion against King Diarmait. At the Battle of Cooldrevny in 561 AD three thousand men were killed.

We know about Columba, or Colmcille, Dove of the Church, thanks to a book of his life written by Adomnan, Abbot of Iona, about 100 years after Columba’s death.

Columba was born around 521 AD into a royal dynasty descended from Niall of the Nine Hostages. Legend tells us that his original name was Crimthann (“fox”) and that when he became a priest he changed it to Columb, (“dove”); later he became known to all as Colum Cille: “dove of the church.”

Although he was in the succession for the kingship he trained for a career in the church, renounced his claim to the throne and became a priest, founding no fewer than 27 monasteries by the time he was 25. One story of his early life claims that he once was so desperate to have a copy of a psalter that he copied it by hand secretly overnight. However another monk saw him working and reported it to the Abbot who refused to let him have the copy. Columba appealed to King Diarmait who found in his favour.

His relationship with the King deteriorated though and he opposed the King’s judgement in another area which ultimately resulted in clan warfare and the Battle of Cooldrevny. His penance was to preach to the heathen and so in 563 AD, at the age of 42, he sailed across the Irish sea with some companions, landed on Iona and founded a monastery.

Thanks to textual material, carved stones and place name evidence, the island of Iona provides a tremendous amount of information about the history of the monastery and also of Christianity in the region. In July 2017 it was reported that archaeologists had identified the remains of the cell of St Columba on Iona. You can read more about the latest discoveries at the Iona Research Group website.

The community at Iona became the heart of Celtic Christianity in the north of Britain. He also seems to have retained influence over his monasteries in Ireland, because in 580 AD Columba was in Ulster mediating between the Irish and the Irish Scots over what was owed to the King. He also persuaded the assembly not to suppress the Bardic Order; he himself had had learned Irish history and poetry from a bard named Gemman and was a poet as well as a priest.

Columba is credited with this poem:

“Delightful to me to be on an island hill, on the crest of a rock, that I might often watch the quiet sea; 

That I might watch the heavy waves above the bright water, as they chant music to their Father everlastingly.

That I might watch its smooth, bright-bordered shore, no gloomy pastime, that I might hear the cry of the strange birds, a pleasing sound;

That I might hear the murmur of the long waves against the rocks, that I might hear the sound of the sea, like mourning beside a grave;

That I might watch the splendid flocks of birds over the well-watered sea, that I might see its mighty whales, the greatest wonder.

That I might watch its ebb and flood in their course, that my name should be–it is a secret that I tell—‘he who turned his back upon Ireland’;

That I might have a contrite heart as I watch, that I might repent my many sins, hard to tell;

That I might bless the Lord who rules all things, heaven with its splendid host, earth, ebb, and flood.”

Columba died in the year that Augustine arrived in Kent; both were instrumental in the further spread of Christianity across the island of Britain, but following the outcome of the Synod of Whitby in 664 AD when the decision was made to follow the Roman rule, Columba has often been downplayed against his Roman counterpart, at least in England. However, the influence of Iona, particularly in the north of England, as well as Scotland, should not be forgotten or under-estimated.

Feast Day of Margaret of Scotland, 10^th June

The original feast day of Margaret of Scotland (also “of Wessex”) is 10^th June, although her death is commemorated on 16^th November.

She was the daughter of Edward the Exile and sister of Edgar the Atheling, who was the alternative candidate for the English throne after King Harold was killed at Hastings in 1066.

Read more about Margaret.

Death of Athelflaed, 12^th June 918

Today we recall the death on 12th June 918 AD of one of the most extraordinary women of Anglo-Saxon England.

Athelflaed was the daughter and eldest child of King Alfred and Ealhswith. She was their eldest child, born around 870 AD and she grew up in a court which included some of the greatest scholars of Europe. She had a full education as befitted a royal princess, and was highly literate and intelligent.

She became the wife of Athelred of Mercia around 888/890 AD, uniting Mercia and Wessex during the Viking threat. Mercia had submitted to Wessex at this time and Athelred is always referred to as the Ealdorman of Mercia rather than King. Equally Athelflaed was known as the Lady of the Mercians (Myrcna hlaefdige) and not Queen, at least in the English Chronicles; Irish Chronicles do refer to her as Queen. Following her father’s death she and her brother, King Edward the Elder, seem to have co-ordinated much of their campaigns against the Vikings.

Much of the information we have about Athelflaed’s activities derive from the Mercian Register which was partially copied into some versions of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle and cover the period of her and Athelred’s reign.

Athelred and Athelflaed had one daughter, Alfwynn, who seems to have been expected to take over from her parents as the Mercian leader: Mercians had far fewer concerns about female leaders than did Wessex. Alfwynn is recorded witnessing charters from 903 AD onwards, and at a relatively high ranking among the signatories; by 915 AD she was second only to her mother in the secular list.

Athelflaed also fostered her nephew, Edward’s son by his first marriage, Athelstan. Interestingly he does not appear on the Mercian charters with his cousin.

In 909 AD Athelred and Athelflaed managed to extricate the relics of St Oswald from Bardney in Lincolnshire to their new foundation in Gloucester. As this meant taking it from Danish held territory it may have contributed to the Danish incursions the following year having broken the peace agreement that had been made in 905 AD at Tiddingford.

Athelred died in 911 AD after a long illness and Athelflaed took sole control of Mercia. She and King Edward continued the programme of building burhs (fortifications) at strategic locations; Edward along the boundary of the Danelaw and Athelflaed along the Welsh marches and up towards the north west to deter Irish Viking incursions via Ireland.  Her burhs included Bremesburh, Sceargeat (unknown location), Bridgnorth, Stafford, Tamworth, Eddisbury, Warwick, Chirbury, Weardbyrig (unknown location) and Runcorn.

The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle records that in 917 AD:

“before Lammas, Aethelflaed, lady of the Mercians, God helping her, got possession of the fortress which is called Derby, with all that owed obedience thereto; and there also were slain, within the gates, four of her thanes, which to her was a cause of sorrow.”

Then the following year:

“AD 918: This year, in the early part of the year, by God’s help, she peacefully got into her power the fortress at Leicester, and the greater part of the army which owed obedience thereto became subject to her; and the people of York had also covenanted with her, some having given a pledge, and some having bound themselves by oath, that they would be at her command.

But very shortly after they had become so, she died at Tamworth twelve days before Midsummer [12th June] the eighth year of her having rule and right lordship over the Mercians; and her body lies at Gloucester, within the east porch of St. Peter’s church.”

Following Athelflaed’s death Edward moved quickly to take control of Mercia from his niece Alfwynn, and by December she was whisked away, probably to a convent:

“This year [918] also the daughter of Aethelred, lord of the Mercians, was deprived of all dominion over the Mercians, and carried into Wessex, three weeks before mid-winter: she was called Aelfwyn.”

Edward died in 924 AD, and then Athelstan took the throne of Mercia, no doubt being a more popular choice than his half-brother Alfweard due to his Mercian childhood with his Aunt Athelflaed.

Birth of Charles the Bald, 13^th June 823

Charles the Bald was born on 13^th June 823 AD. He became King of West Frankia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor. He was also father-in-law of both Athelwulf of Wessex and later Athelbald of Wessex, both of whom (shockingly as far as the Christian Church was concerned, but perhaps traditionally for a pagan king) married Charles’ daughter Judith. He was also the King who paid off the Vikings after the Sack of Paris on 29^th March 845 AD.

Charles himself was born in Frankfurt and had older half-brothers who were already adults at the time of his birth. This meant that he had considerable difficulty in establishing his own kingdom in the face of strong sibling rivalry, despite his father’s efforts to leave him land. His father, Louis the Pious, died in 840 AD and civil war ensued. Charles allied with one brother, Louis the German, against another, Lothair, and eventually became King of West Frankia.

After Lothair’s death Louis was eventually persuaded by his councillors to invade West Frankia and Charles was unable to raise an army in defence due to his unpopularity. The family struggles continued for a number of years, until Charles was finally able to agree a treaty in 870 AD which shared Lotharingia (Lothair’s former kingdom) between him and Louis.

It seemed things might be going his way at last. In 875 AD the Pope crowned Charles Holy Roman Emperor, much to Louis’ fury as he had also been a contender for the title. As a result Louis invaded West Frankia again forcing Charles to rush home. Louis died in 876 AD and Charles in turn tried to seize his kingdom of East Frankia but was comprehensively defeated by Louis’ son, also called Louis.

Charles died in 877 AD on his way back from a failed attempt to raise an army in support of the Pope against the Saracens. 

Coincidentally his nephew, another son of Louis the German, was Charles the Fat and he was also born on 13^th June, in 839 AD. He was faced with dealing with the remnants of the Great Heathen Army that Alfred had driven out of England after the Battle of Ethandun in 878 AD.

The origin of the epithet “Bald” is unclear, and images depicting him do not show him as bald. The name may indeed have been intended to emphasise that he was actually quite hairy (cf “Little” John in Robin Hood, who was exceptionally tall).

Equally Charles the Fat, his nephew, was first called “Fat” in the 12^th century and there is no evidence about his actual size, large or small.

Feast day of Eadburh of Winchester, 15^th June

15th June is the feast day of Eadburh of Winchester.

She was the daughter of Edward the Elder and his third wife, Eadgifu of Kent, and the sister of the kings Edmund the Magnificent and Eadred. She was born about 920 AD and showed an early inclination for the holy life, even at the age of three choosing a gold chalice and gospel book over toys and jewels. Her father recognised her youthful devotion and put her into the care of the abbess Athelthryth at Nunnaminster in Winchester. Nunnaminster had been founded by Eadburh’s grandmother Ealhswith, wife of Alfred and the “the true and beloved lady of the English”.

While Eadburh seems to have remained at Nunnaminster for the rest of her life, this did not mean she was without influence or reputation. She is attested in 939 AD in a charter of her half-brother King Athelstan, in which she is the beneficiary of a grant of land.

She was revered by her contemporaries for her gentleness and humility, and her presence at Nunnaminster would have enhanced its wealth significantly due to her royal connections. Osbert  of Clare tells us a number of stories about Eadburh which tend to underline her importance as a source of income to the monastery.

On one occasion she was found reading alone against the rules of the house, and was beaten until the abbess realised who she was and apologised, prostrating herself in front of Eadburh. This story emphasises the status and value of a royal member of the community, and how such noble women were assets to the houses which took them in and provided them with a safe and comfortable home.

Eadburh was also discovered by the nuns to be getting up in the night to clean their shoes for them. This was considered wholly unsuitable for a noble woman and once again she was in trouble. When her father heard about it on a visit however he was glad to learn of her humility and goodness, contrary to the expectations of the nuns.

On another of her father’s visits she was able to request from him an important estate for the nunnery in return for singing to him.

Osbert also goes on to describe her generosity to the poor and also a miracle following her death.

She died at Nunnaminster no later than 960 AD. Having been buried in a humble grave near a window, it became apparent that the window could not be closed for three nights in a row due to pressure from outside. This was understood to tell the nuns that Eadburh was unhappy with her burial place and so she was moved but again her displeasure was made clear. On the third move, her body was found to be uncorrupted by decay, and so she was moved to a place near the high altar and her cult began to flourish, continuing to attract pilgrims, and their money, to the church. In death as in life Eadburh took good financial care of her community.

Finally Osbert attributes five more miracles to Eadburh. Four of these involved curing people, and the fifth in freeing a man from chains which had been placed on him at the order of the king.

Her cult was first mentioned in the Salisbury Psalter from the early 970s and was later further enhanced by Bishop Athelwold of Winchester who had her body removed from its resting place at the altar and transferred to a silver shrine. She was still popular in the 13th and 14th centuries.

Battle of Glasbury-on-Wye, 16^th June 1056

On 16th June 1056 Gruffydd ap Llewellyn defeated the English at Glasbury-on-Wye and killed Leofgar, who was the Bishop of Hereford and Harold Godwinson’s former chaplain, together with his clerks and the shire reeve Agelnoth.

Gruffydd was the son of Llewellyn ap Seisyll and Angharad, the daughter of Mareduddab Owain. He succeeded to the kingdom of Gwynedd in 1039 after the assassination of Iago ab Idwal, allegedly by Iago’s own men. Gruffydd was already king of Powys at the time.

He then fought a battle at Welshpool against the Mercians and killed Edwin, the brother of Leofric, Earl of Mercia. Finally he turned his attention to Deheubarth and drove out the king there, taking power in 1044, but being driven out himself in 1045.

In 1052 Gruffydd was again active on the border with England, fighting at Leominster / Llanllieni against a combined English and Norman force (these were Normans who had come to England at the invitation of King Edward the Confessor).

“AD 1052: In the same year Griffin, the Welsh king, plundered in Herefordshire, until he came very nigh to Leominster; and they gathered against him, as well the landsmen as the Frenchmen of the castle, and there were slain of the English very many good  men, and also of the Frenchmen”

Gruffydd continued to raid across the border until in 1055 he allied with Alfgar, another son of Leofric who had been expelled from East Anglia to the benefit of Harold Godwinson. It was Harold who was sent to restore the peace after Gruffydd attacked Hereford and overcame the local forces. With Alfgar restored to his earldom soon afterwards, Gruffydd returned to Wales to take back Deheubarth, as well as Morgannwg, and so became the first king of the whole of Wales. At this time he also took extensive land in England near the border.

So it was that on 16th June 1056 Gruffydd was again fighting the English, this time at Glasbury.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle:

AD 1056. ‘This year died Aethelstan, the venerable bishop, on the 4th of the ides of February [10th Feb.], and his body lies at Hereford-port; and Leofgar was appointed bishop; he was the mass-priest of Harold the earl. He wore his “kenepas” [moustache – symbol of a warrior] during his priesthood, until he was a bishop. He forsook his chrism and his rood, his spiritual weapons, and took to his spear and his sword, after his bishophood; and so went to the field against Griffin the Welsh king: and there was he slain, and his priests with him, and AElfnoth the sheriff, and many good men with them; and the others fled away. This was eight days before midsummer. It is difficult to tell the distress, and all the marching, and the camping, and the travail and destruction of men, and also of horses, which all the English army endured, until Leofric the earl came thither, and Harold the earl, and bishop Aldred, and made a reconciliation there between them; so that Griffin swore oaths that he would be to king Edward a faithful and unbetraying under-king. And bishop Ealdred succeeded to the bishopric which Leofgar had before held eleven weeks and four days.

Gruffydd’s oath to King Edward did not last long and in 1058 he was back in the field. Harold Godwinson eventually drove him out of Wales in 1062. He was killed in 1064 by Cynan, a man who is in some sources (such as the Ulster Chronicle) linked to Iago whose assassination had opened the way for Gryffydd to build his power.

Harold Godwinson not only brought about the end of the reign of the first king of Wales; he also married Gruffydd’s widow, Eadgyth of Mercia who was the daughter of Alfgar.

Feast Day of St Botolph, 17^th June

Despite being a significant missionary of the seventh century Botolph is little known to us today; he is not even mentioned by Bede. His feast day is 17th June, and there are over 70 churches dedicated to him around the UK which indicates his popularity in earlier times, despite our current lack of awareness.

Botolph (originally Botwulf) was probably born in East Anglia although this is not certain. The Flemish hagiographer Folcard in the 11th century wrote a “Life” of Botolph, and claimed he was Saxon, although loved by the Scots; meanwhile the Schleswig Breviary claims he was a Scot (Irish), and this suggestion may have originated with St Willibrord who studied in Ireland before his career on the Continent where he ultimately became Archbishop of the Frisians.

Botolph studied in Germany and Chelles in Frankia before returning home.

According to the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in 654 AD he founded a monastic community at Ikenhoe based on the Benedictine Rule, although before doing so he had to exorcise the demons which inhabited the place. The fens and marshes held many terrors for people, some of which have continued in legends still told today about the phantom dog, Black Shuck (OE “scucca” meaning fiend) and other terrifying creatures. As such Botolph was also a saint who protected travellers, especially crossing water, and many of the churches dedicated to him are placed beside the road leaving a town (ie on the left) or crossing a river.

Read more about Botulph in The forgotten history of St Botwulf, by Dr Sam Newton (2016)

The location of the monastery is not certain: both Iken in Suffolk and Boston are suggested possibilities. Wherever it was located, it was an important site. In 669 AD Ceolfrith, who later became abbot at Monkwearmouth and Jarrow, studied there to learn about the Rule, while on his way back to the north after a period studying at Canterbury under Archbishop Theodore and following his ordination. The good Botolph is described as:

“so well founded that no one could be found better versed than he, either in ecclesiastical or monastic tradition.”

Botolph is also referenced in a charter for the foundation of St Mildburh in Shropshire, around 675-690 AD.

Botolph died around 680 AD and was buried at his monastery. However, the house did not survive the Viking incursions in East Anglia and was destroyed around 870 AD. King Edgar (963-967AD) ordered that the remains of the saint be taken from the monastery ruins, and be divided into three parts: the head to be taken to Ely, the middle to be taken to Thorney, and the remainder to be taken to Westminster Abbey, although the planned distribution may not have been completed as the King commanded and they probably only reached Grundisburgh.

The Rev Dr Baring-Gould appeared to share Bede’s lack of interest in the saint when he concluded:

“There [Ikenhoe] he dwelt and founded an abbey, and there he spent a life singularly barren of interesting events. He was beloved by all who came near him, on account of his humility, gentleness, and affability. He died the same year as S. Hilda, in 655 [sic]. It is impossible to give more details concerning a saint of whom so little that is trustworthy or interesting is known.”

Nevertheless, Botolph was a man renowned by his contemporaries for his gentleness and humility, as well as his learning.

Capture of Brecananmere, 19^th June 916

On 19th June 916 AD Athelflaed, Lady of the Mercians, sent an army into Wales and took the royal residence at Brecananmere, capturing the wife of King Tewdr of Brycheiniog along with 33 other people.

What had annoyed the lady so much is described in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’s entry for the year:

AD. 916. “This year Abbot Ecgbriht was guiltlessly slain, before Midsummer, on the sixteenth of the kalends of July: the same day was the feast of the martyr St. Ciricius and his fellows [16th June]. And three days after this, AEthelflaed sent her forces among the Welsh, and stormed Brecananmere, and there “took the king’s wife, as one of four-and-thirty persons.”

The abbot would appear to be the same man who had witnessed a charter issued at the burh at Weardbyrig (location unknown) in 915 AD, so perhaps he was a close adviser of Athelflaed. He had been travelling in Brycheiniog under Athelflaed’s protection when he was attacked.

Brecananmere was a crannog in the lake at Llangorse, a unique and Irish-influenced royal residence emphasising the Irish connections of the Welsh ruler, Tewdr ap Elisedd.

The crannog itself was constructed with timbers felled 889-993 AD, many of them re-used making precise building dates difficult, but the crannog itself would have been unique in Wales. The link to the Irish would have been intended to support the claims of the Brycheiniog ruling elite to be of Irish descent. It was around 40m wide and 30-40m off the northern shore of the lake. It was built from planks of oak with a dwelling platform formed from layers of stone, soil and brushwood on a man-made island and was defended by a wooden palisade. There would have been a central hall and a number of smaller buildings. Archaeological excavations of the site have found a number of items indicating a substantial settlement consistent with a royal palace, as well as a burnt layer which may be evidence for Athelflaed’s attack. The kings at that time moved from site to site through the year, so it was not occupied at all times. Although the Welsh queen was taken prisoner the king was not – he may have escaped or he may not have been present.

The attack on the abbot is unexplained and perhaps the Welsh were testing the Mercian defences given the English focus on dealing with the Viking incursions. At this time Edward was away in the east of England campaigning in Essex and fortifying Maldon, and Athelflaed was busy with her own campaign. Also, a number of the burhs that Athelflaed had had built were along the Welsh / English border so it is also possible there had been a build-up of tension prior to the abbot’s misadventure.

Nevertheless Athelflaed responded quickly and decisively, so either the abbot was important to her personally or her general response to Welsh impudence was intended to be clear and immediate. She moved her forces quickly and stormed the crannog having been engaged in building a number of burhs, most recently at Warwick; the year after she took Derby where she lost four of her thanes “who were dear to her”. She seems to have been a woman who valued her friends highly so perhaps the revenge for the abbot was more than a simple lesson in Mercian preparedness.

King Tewdr was required to submit to Athelflaed and pay compensation, but it seems there were no further reprisals against the Welsh for the incident, and no further disruptions are recorded. The crannog itself was not rebuilt by the Welsh king.

Battle at Catalaunian Fields, 20^th June 451

After the Roman militias were recalled from the Province of Britannia, the people struggled with invasions from Scots and Picts. According to Gildas they appealed to General Aetius for help, probably some time between 446 AD and 454 AD, but he told them to look to their own affairs.

Aetius had other concerns. On 20^th June 451 AD he took on the forces of Attila the Hun in the Battle at Catalaunian Fields in north east France in what is now known as the Champagne region. The exact site of the battle is not known but it was probably somewhere between Troyes and Chalons-sur-Marne.

Among the casualties was Theodoric, King of the Visigoths, but the Romans held the field in one of the most important battles of the age. This was the first time that Europeans had managed to defeat the Hun army, and the idea that they were invincible was proven wrong.

The battle came at a time when the old Roman Empire had fractured and was now split between Byzantium in the East and Ravenna in the West. At the same time the Huns were driving westwards, displacing Goths and Franks as they came. It is likely that part of this movement of people impacted the decision of some groups in the Anglo-Saxon homelands to migrate to Britain, while many other peoples moved into the continental remnants of the Western Roman Empire.

When they could not prevent the advance, the Romans resorted to a familiar tactic of trying to pay the advancing forces off, a tactic later used by the Anglo-Saxons against the Vikings, and which was equally unsuccessful for both parties.

Attila had taken control of the Huns in 433 AD and with his brother he organised a far more effective force to replace the somewhat random looting and pillaging which had previously afflicted the Romans.  At the Treaty of Margus in 439 AD he negotiated a huge sum of money to refrain from attacking the Romans, and turned to the Sassanid Empire instead. The Sassanids proved to be ferociously capable of defence and so the Huns returned to the Roman field, while the Romans had withdrawn their troops to deal with the Vandals in North Africa and Sicily. In 445 AD the Huns swept through the Danube region which was now undefended.

Attila viewed Rome as weak, and starting in 446 or 447 CE, he invaded the region around the modern Balkans, destroying over 70 cities, taking slaves, and sending his spoils back to the city of Buda (possibly Budapest).

Then in 450 AD he was offered the perfect opportunity to attack further west. The Roman Emperor’s sister requested Attila’s help in escaping a marriage contract; Attila cannily chose to interpret this as a betrothal and demanded half the Western Empire as a dowry, then brought his army west to bring home his bride. His opposing war leader was Aetius.

Ironically Aetius had spent his youth as a hostage at the court of the Huns, spoke their language, and understood their culture. He knew Attila well, even using him as a mercenary in a number of other campaigns and the two men had a friendly relationship.

Aetius was also charismatic and had a reputation for bravery and military skill. Even so he was only able to muster around 50,000 men and had to ally with Theoderic I of the Visigoths to make up sufficient numbers for the campaign which involved huge armies.

In 451 AD Attila moved on Gaul with an army of around 200,000 men, taking Gallia Belgica first of all, and the people fled before him. Few if any were aware of his losses against the Sassanids and he was seen as impossible to defeat. Attila then moved on until he reached Orleans which he placed under siege. It was here that Aetius came against him and managed to disperse his forward troops. Attila withdrew to the north leaving around 15,000 Gepid warriors who were destroyed by Aetius in a night attack.

The two forces met at the Catalaunian Fields, where allegedly Attila waited until around 2.30pm to start the attack, possibly because he was not fully in position. The fierce fighting went on until dark and was confused and bloody. Morning light revealed the carnage, with neither side pressing to re-engage. And now things become even more strange.  Aetius sent home his ally Thorismund, possibly because he didn’t feel confident of his loyalty. With Thorismund off the field Aetius then also slipped his forces away leaving Attila awaiting attack. Once he realised his opponents had gone Attila himself chose to leave Gaul and return home; there is no known reason for this decision and it had been suggested that Attila and Aetius had made a bargain under the cover of the confusion the night before. If so, the outcome of the agreement was that Aetius remained indispensable to his masters and Attila did not have to face a fight he may not have been confident of winning, and was able to keep his booty into the bargain.

Deciding who was the “winner” is difficult. However, Roman culture was retained and the Huns withdrew, having failed to reach their objective of taking half the Roman territory which Attila had demanded.

Aetius and Attila were both dead within a few years. Aetius killed by the Emperor Valentinian, and Attila bursting a blood vessel while drinking heavily. Attila’s sons fought each other and their inheritance fell apart in the years that followed. The Roman Empire in the West was soon to fall to Germanic tribes.

Death of Athelthrith, 23^rd June 679

St Athelthrith died on 23 June 679 AD after an eventful life.

She was born around 636 AD at Exning in Suffolk as the third and middle daughter of King Anna of East Anglia and Saewara. Her elder sisters were Saethrith and Sexburga, and her younger sisters were Withburga and Ethelburga. Her grandfather was King Raedwald (generally presumed to be buried in the ship burial at Sutton Hoo). Her father Anna died in 654 AD fighting Penda of Mercia and was succeeded by his brother, Athelhere.

Her family were pious Christians having been converted during her father’s life by St Felix, and Athelthrith wanted to become a nun. However, the life of an Anglo-Saxon princess had its responsibilities and in 652 AD she was married to Tondbert, an East Anglian sub-king or ealdorman of the South Gyrwas based in the fenlands. It was on this marriage that she received the estate of Elge (Ely), as part of her marriage gift. Tondbert was pragmatic; following their wedding he agreed that Athelthrith could live as a nun, as she wished.

Athelthrith settled on Ely and lived peacefully in religious retirement for some years. Tondbert had died by 660 AD, because at this time she was required to marry Ecgfrith, the son of King Oswiu of Northumbria and Eanflaed. It is likely that the East Anglians needed allies against Mercia and the marriage was intended to secure that.

While we don’t know the age of Tondbert from her first marriage, we do know that there was quite an age gap in this second marriage. Athelthrith would have been around 24 or 25, while Ecgfrith was approximately 10 years her junior. The aetheling was in awe of his wife, according to the sources, learned from her and also did not consummate the marriage. Bede tells us:

“Though she lived with him twelve years, yet she preserved the glory of perfect virginity, as I was informed by Bishop Wilfrid, of blessed memory, of whom I inquired, because some questioned the truth thereof; and he told me that he was an undoubted witness of her virginity”

Ecgfrith succeeded to the Kingdom of Northumbria in 670 AD and his wife made their court a place of learning and piety, including sponsoring Cuthbert, who was then the Prior of Lindisfarne. She embroidered a stole and maniple for him herself, which he wore when celebrating mass (these were not the ones on display at Durham Cathedral; those date to the 10^th century and were a gift from King AEthelstan). She was also friends with Wilfrid, and she gave him lands at Hexham.

Athelthrith and Ecgfrith had been married for 12 years when their relationship ran into trouble. Ecgfrith was no longer a child in awe of is wife; he now wished to consummate the marriage and presumably to produce heirs. Athelthrith begged to differ. She argued forcefully with him that she should be able to retire and become a nun. In this she was supported by Wilfrid, who misled the King by pretending to take his part in the arguments but in fact encouraged Athelthrith. Almost as soon as Ecgfrith had agreed to Athelfrith’s wishes he changed his mind. However, Athelthrith was already on her way to the Abbey at Coldingham, ruled by Ecgfrith’s aunt, Abbe.

Ecgfrith decided to take his wife back, willingly or not. Abbe advised Athelthrith to make an escape as she was unable to protect her, and so she left disguised as a beggar, taking only two nuns with her for support. She decided to return to her own lands at Ely.

And so began a chase along the coastal roads of England. Ecgfrith was close behind Athelthrith as she fled. On the first night she managed to reach a headland where the height of the tide prevented Ecgfrith from catching up with her. The tide remained high for seven days instead of receding. This example of divine intervention persuaded Ecgfrith his cause was hopeless and Athelthrith was able to continue on her way. It was a long and weary journey but at last she came home to Ely. Meanwhiel Ecgfrith married a second wife instead.

In 673 AD Athelthrith built a large double monastery at Ely and her friend Wilfrid made her abbess, and she ruled there until her death. She died of an abscess of the throat, which she regarded as punishment for her previous love of jewellery. Her incorrupt body was supposed to have healed the wound made by the surgeon attempting to drain the abscess, and inevitably she became the patron saint of those with throat complaints. She was succeeded at Ely Abbey by her sister Sexburga.

Athelthrith was one of the most popular of Old English saints, and there are more dedications in her name (variously spelt) in England than in that of any other female saint of the early English Church.

The abbey was destroyed by Viking raiders in 870 AD and refounded in 970 AD, and eventually became a cathedral in 1109 AD.

Following her death she performed miracles including blinding a Viking who tried to steal from her tomb, and providing support against the Norman oppression of the cathedral which sheltered Hereward the Wake.

Battle of Moira / Magh Rath, 24^th June 637

24^th June 637 AD saw the Battle of Moira (or Magh Rath) in Ireland, between Domhnall, High King of Ireland and Congal Cláen (“Half Blind”), King of Ulster. But it didn’t involve only the Irish. Warriors from what we now call Scotland, Wales and England also took part. It was an important battle for a number of reasons, and was recorded by Adomnan, Abbot of Iona, as well as in The Annals of Tigernach, the Annals of Ulster and various other Irish sources.

In 628 AD Congall had killed the then King of Ireland, and taken his place. However, a bee sting had resulted in him being blinded in one eye, and in common with a number of other cultures at that time it was considered that the High King had to be physically perfect. Congall had sued the owners of the bees for compensation (the law tract still survives). However he soon found himself at war with Domhnall (who was also his foster father) and was defeated in battle in 629 AD at the Battle of Dún Ceithirn.

Congall fled across the sea to Scotland to seek help from King Domnall Brecc of the Kingdom of Dal Riada which had been established by Irishmen from North Antrim.

After some years he returned with a war band of Scots, Britons (Welsh) and Saxons to challenge Domhnall. It is believed that the army also brought a cohort of cavalry with them.

Landing at Dunseverick he led his troops south along the road to Tara, seat of the Kings of Ireland, while Domhnall advance northwards to meet him.

A range of characters are associated with the battle. Domnall’s army included a Christian Saint, Ronan Finn, in its number. An early church was dedicated to him at Magheralin, in County Down. Meanwhile in Congall’s army one of the Dal Riadan princes was Suibhne mac Colmain, or Sweeney, who was driven mad by a curse from Finn and whose story was recorded in the Irish story of “Sweeney’s Frenzy”.

It is recorded that 50,000 men met at Moira and fought for six days. Congall and his army were completely defeated and Domhnall and his clan of Ui Neill then ruled for the next 1000 years until the Flight of the Earls in 1607. Meanwhile Dal Riada lost its land and influence in Ireland and turned its attention to its northern British territory, thus beginning the formation of what eventually became Scotland. The Kingdom of Dal Riada played an important part in the development not only of Scotland but also in its influence on events further south in Britain.

Over the years people have uncovered great quantities of human remains near Moira which are alleged to have been from the battle, described as:

“the greatest battle, whether we regard the numbers engaged, the duration of combat, or the stake at issue, ever fought within the bounds of Ireland.”

For many years a pillar stone in Carnalbanagh with a crude cross and some circles on it was believed to mark the graves of the Dal Riadan Princes. Unfortunately in the early 19^th century the local farmer knocked it down to use to fill a hole. Sir Samuel Ferguson, the Irish poet and antiquarian recorded the loss in a post-script to his 1872 poem about the battle:

“I learn with deep regret and some shame for my countrymen of the North, that this memorial exists no longer. It has been destroyed by the tenant. I saw it, and was touched by the common humanity that had respected it through so many ages, when I walked over the battlefield, accompanied by the late John Rogan, the local antiquary of Moira, in 1842.”

Death of Athelstan Atheling, 25^th June 1014

25th June 1014 saw the death of Athelstan Atheling, the full brother of King Edmund Ironside. Athelstan was the eldest son of King Athelred Unrede and Alfgifu, his first wife, who were married around 985 AD.

Little is known of him, although he witnessed a charter in 993 AD, presumably still a child. However, his will has survived and provides an insight into the household of an atheling as well as Athelstan’s personal friendships and loyalties. For instance in the will he prays for the soul of his grandmother who brought him up; this was Alfthryth, wife of Edgar and mother of both Athelred the King and his murdered brother King Edward the Martyr.

In 1013 his father King Athelred Unrede had been driven out of his kingdom by Sweyn Forkbeard and gone into exile in Normandy. Where his eldest sons were at the time is not clear but it is possible they remained in England. Sweyn died on 3rd February 1014 and Athelred returned to his throne, promising to rule better in a detailed agreement which is the first recorded pact between a King and his subjects.

In Athelstan’s will, copies of which still survive, and which was made on the day of his death, his first bequest was the manumission of “every penally enslaved man whom I obtained through litigation;” and he gave large amounts of property to the church. The Holy Cross and St Edward the Martyr (his uncle) at Shaftesbury received six pounds.

Athelstan is often described as a “warrior prince” because by his death he had accumulated a large collection of swords, prized war horses and combat equipment. He left Edmund Ironside his most prized possession, a sword which had once belonged to Offa of Mercia, together with some of his estates and other pieces of his war gear. To his other full brother, Eadwig, he gave another piece from his large weapon collection, a silver-hilted sword. Members of his household also benefited: his chaplain, his seneschal, his retainers (cnihtas), his sword-sharpener and his stag huntsman. He also remembered three thegns of the Danelaw, Sigeferth, Morcar and Thurbrand the Hold. His mother had been the daughter of Earl Thored of Northumbria, although she is not mentioned in the will despite mentions of his father, grandmother and foster-mother. Neither does he mention his step-mother or half-brothers, so a family split has been perceived. Another beneficiary was Godwin, son of Wulfnoth, and who is believed to be the same person as Godwin, Earl of Wessex and father of King Harold. Godwin was bequeathed an estate at Compton in Sussex, which had originally belonged to his father Wulfnoth.

Athelstan’s estates were widespread in Oxfordshire, Buckinghamshire, Cambridgeshire, Derbyshire, Bedfordshire, Hertfordshire, Hampshire, Wiltshire and Kent.

He was buried at the Old Minster, Winchester.

28 June 975 AD saw the death of the Bishop of Wells, Cyneweard.

Cyneweard is not one of the most well-known of Anglo-Saxon Bishops, but he was important enough that he was mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle’s panegyric to King Edgar. The coronation of Edgar in July 975 AD was recorded in a poem which also included the lines:

“And him, a glorious chief,

ten days before,

departed from Britain,

the good bishop,

through nature’s course,

to whom was Cyneweard name.”

Cyneweard seems to have been a monk at Glastonbury Abbey. He was appointed by King Edgar as Abbot at Milton Abbey (the Abbey Church of St Mary, St Samson, and St Branwalader) in 964 AD, at the time when the king replaced the priests there with monks under a Benedictine foundation. A secular college of canons had originally been founded there by King Athelstan in 933 AD.

In 973 AD Byrthelm, the Bishop of Wells and also formerly of Glastonbury, died and Cyneweard was consecrated as his successor. His rule was short and his passing is overlooked in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle apart from the lines quoted above from the B Manuscript of the Chronicles. He was succeeded in turn by Sigar, also from Glastonbury.

Wells had become a seat separate from Sherborne in 909 AD.

Bede made deacon, 29^th June 693

Knighting of Hereward the Wake, 29^th June

Hereward the Wake is a figure of Anglo-Saxon legend, and his story is part history and part fantasy.

He was born in the 11th century. Much of the information we have about him comes from an early 12th century translation of a (lost) Old English history, the Gesta Herewardi, supposedly written by the deacon Leofric, a priest of his household. The original text had been damaged by the time it was copied into Latin so the gaps were filled in by oral tradition.

The number of men coming to serve Hereward against the Normans grew and grew. Hereward was more than willing to lead them but felt that he should receive his knighthood first. Accordingly he went to Peterborough Abbey and asked the Abbot Brand to knight him. This was done on Feast of the Nativity of the Apostles Peter and Paul, 29th June. This was itself an act of provocation, because the Normans had ruled that knighting by a monk or any cleric was not true knighthood.

Read more about Hereward.

Death of Archbishop Athelred, 30^th June 888

Athelred Archbishop of Canterbury died on 30th June 888 AD, during the reign of Alfred the Great and the period of Viking incursions. These two factors helped to define his primacy.

He was consecrated as Archbishop in 870 AD, the year in which the Vikings led by Ivarr the Boneless and Ubba invaded East Anglia and plundered Peterborough. King Edmund was martyred. Ivarr then led an army to besiege Dumbarton, while Halfdan and Bagsecg took Reading and in December fought the Battle of Englefield. In 871 AD more pitched battles were fought at Reading, Ashdown, Basing, Meretun and Wilton, and following the death of King Athelred of Wessex, Alfred succeeded unexpectedly to the throne.

In the early years of his reign Alfred, in common with many other leaders of the time, pursued a policy of paying off the Vikings to go and raid elsewhere. The effect of this was a need to raise taxes, and he demanded the Church contribute in full. Today we are sometimes surprised that the Church did not see the urgency of this request but at the time it was probably far less obvious. The King of Wessex and the Archbishop of Canterbury argued.

In 877 AD Athelred wrote to the Pope John VIII complaining about Alfred’s behaviour and lack of respect for the Church.  Certainly the Bishops of Winchester in this period (Ealhferth, died by 877 AD, succeeded by Denewulf) were also struggling to keep their lands and possessions.

Athelred’s original letter is lost so the details are not known for certain but the Pope replied that the Archbishop should resist not only the king but all those who wished to do wrong, and he should protect priests, monks, nuns and widows. The Pope also explained he had written to Alfred as well, although this letter too has been lost, and says that:

“we have been at pains to admonish and exhort your king … not to neglect to be obedient to you and a devoted helper for the love of Jesus Christ our Lord in all things.”

Alfred may have been trying to take control of the monasteries in Kent as well as taxing the Church heavily. The Vikings at this time were camped in Dorset and Devon and in danger of taking Wessex and the pressure was intense. The evidence does at least indicate that Alfred was not seeking personal enrichment, although the Church probably was not interested in the distinction. It is certainly likely that other nobles were trying to enrich themselves. However, the decline in Latin literacy and book production does indicate the effect of Viking raids on the Church as well as the wider kingdom. Documents and charters during Athelred’s primacy contain a number of errors and duplications indicating poorly educated scribes.

Certainly the Church would have needed its wealth to support its communities at a very difficult and dangerous time as well as to educate its scribes. It had engaged in creating stunning religious art earlier in the century, which was part of the attraction for the raiders. Around 750 AD, for example, Canterbury had produced the gospel book now known as the Codex Aureus, or the Stockholm Codex, with purple pages, copious gold decoration and a richly decorated binding which has not survived. This gospel book was famously ransomed back from the Vikings by the ealdorman Alfred, and his wife Werburg, and Alhthryth. The record of their donation is recorded on the opening page of the Gospel of Matthew:

“In nomine Domini nostri Ihesu Christi Ic Aelfred aldormon ond Werburg min gefera begetan thas bec aet haethnum herge mid uncre claene feo, thaet thonne waes mid claene golde, ond thaet wit deodan for Godes lufan ond for uncre saule thearfe.

Ond for thon the wit noldan thaet thas halgan beoc lencg in thaere haethenesse wunaden, ond nu willath heo gesellan inn to Cristes circan Gode to lofe ond to wuldre ond to weorthunga, ond his throwunga to thoncunga, ond thaem godcundan geferscipe to brucenne the in Cristes circan daeghwaemlice Godes lof raerath, to thaem gerade thaet heo mon arede eghwelce monathe for Aelfred ond for Werburge ond for Alhthrythe, heora saulum to ecum lecedome, tha hwile the God gesegen haebbe thaet fulwiht aet theosse stowe beon mote.

Ec swelce ic Aelfred dux ond Werburg biddath ond halsiath on Godes almaehtiges noman ond on allra his haligra thaet naenig mon seo to thon gedyrstig thaette thas halgan beoc aselle oththe atheode from Cristes circan tha hwile the fulwiht <stondan><mote>.”

“In the name of Our Lord Jesus Christ. I, ealdorman Alfred, and Werburg, my wife, obtained these books from the heathen army with our pure money, that was with pure gold, and we did that for God’s love and for the sake of our souls.

And because we did not wish that these holy books would remain long among the heathens, and now we want to give it to Christ’s church for God’s praise, honour and glory, and in gratitude of his passion and for the use of the religious community, who daily raises up God’s praise in Christ’s church, on the condition that they are read every month for Alfred and for Werburg and for Alhthryth, for the eternal salvation of their souls, for as long as God should grant that the faith is allowed to be in this place.

Also likewise, I, ealdorman Alfred, and Werburg pray and ask in the God’s almighty name and those of all his saints that no man will be so bold as to deliver or separate these books from Christ’s church for as long as the faith is allowed to stand.”

Ironically the Codex is now held in Stockholm. It was kept in Canterbury until going to Spain in the 16^th century, and was finally acquired by the Royal Library of Sweden in 1690.